Herodotus · Histories · 希罗多德 · 历史

The Persian learned men say that the Phoenicians were the cause of the dispute. These (they say) came to our seas from the sea which is called Red, and having settled in the country which they still occupy, at once began to make long voyages. Among other places to which they carried Egyptian and Assyrian merchandise, they came to Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos ,

which was at that time preeminent in every way among the people of what is now called Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . The Phoenicians came to Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos , and set out their cargo.

On the fifth or sixth day after their arrival, when their wares were almost all sold, many women came to the shore and among them especially the daughter of the king, whose name was Io (according to Persians and Greeks alike), the daughter of Inachus.

As these stood about the stern of the ship bargaining for the wares they liked, the Phoenicians incited one another to set upon them. Most of the women escaped: Io and others were seized and thrown into the ship, which then sailed away for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

In this way, the Persians say (and not as the Greeks), was how Io came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and this, according to them, was the first wrong that was done. Next, according to their story, some Greeks (they cannot say who) landed at Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Tyre in Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia and carried off the king's daughter Europa. These Greeks must, I suppose, have been Cretans. So far, then, the account between them was balanced. But after this (they say), it was the Greeks who were guilty of the second wrong.

They sailed in a long ship to Aea, a city of the Colchians, and to the river Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited place), regions under republican jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia Phasis : and when they had done the business for which they came, they carried off the king's daughter Medea.

When the Colchian king sent a herald to demand reparation for the robbery and restitution of his daughter, the Greeks replied that, as they had been refused reparation for the abduction of the Argive Io, they would not make any to the Colchians.

Then (they say), in the second generation after this, Alexandrus, son of Priam, who had heard this tale, decided to get himself a wife from Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas by capture; for he was confident that he would not suffer punishment.

So he carried off Helen. The Greeks first resolved to send messengers demanding that Helen be restored and atonement made for the seizure; but when this proposal was made, the Trojans pleaded the seizure of Medea, and reminded the Greeks that they asked reparation from others, yet made none themselves, nor gave up the booty when asked.

So far it was a matter of mere seizure on both sides. But after this (the Persians say), the Greeks were very much to blame; for they invaded Asia (continent) Asia before the Persians attacked Europe (continent) Europe .

“We think,” they say, “that it is unjust to carry women off. But to be anxious to avenge rape is foolish: wise men take no notice of such things. For plainly the women would never have been carried away, had they not wanted it themselves.

We of Asia (continent) Asia did not deign to notice the seizure of our women; but the Greeks, for the sake of a Lacedaemonian woman, recruited a great armada, came to Asia (continent) Asia , and destroyed the power of Priam.

Ever since then we have regarded Greeks as our enemies.” For the Persians claim Asia (continent) Asia for their own, and the foreign peoples that inhabit it; Europe (continent) Europe and the Greek people they consider to be separate from them.

Such is the Persian account; in their opinion, it was the taking of Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus) Troy which began their hatred of the Greeks.

But the Phoenicians do not tell the same story about Io as the Persians. They say that they did not carry her off to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt by force. She had intercourse in Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos with the captain of the ship. Then, finding herself pregnant, she was ashamed to have her parents know it, and so, lest they discover her condition, she sailed away with the Phoenicians of her own accord.

These are the stories of the Persians and the Phoenicians. For my part, I shall not say that this or that story is true, but I shall identify the one who I myself know did the Greeks unjust deeds, and thus proceed with my history, and speak of small and great cities of men alike.

For many states that were once great have now become small; and those that were great in my time were small before. Knowing therefore that human prosperity never continues in the same place, I shall mention both alike.

Croesus was a Lydian by birth, son of Alyattes, and sovereign of all the nations west of the river Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys , which flows from the south between Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria and Paphlagonia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Paphlagonia and empties into the sea called Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine .

This Croesus was the first foreigner whom we know who subjugated some Greeks and took tribute from them, and won the friendship of others: the former being the Ionians, the Aeolians, and the Dorians of Asia (continent) Asia , and the latter the Lacedaemonians.

Before the reign of Croesus, all Greeks were free: for the Cimmerian host which invaded Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia before his time did not subjugate the cities, but raided and robbed them.

Now the sovereign power that belonged to the descendants of Heracles fell to the family of Croesus, called the Mermnadae, in the following way.

Candaules, whom the Greeks call Myrsilus, was the ruler of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ; he was descended from Alcaeus, son of Heracles; Agron son of Ninus, son of Belus, son of Alcaeus, was the first Heraclid king of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and Candaules son of Myrsus was the last.

The kings of this country before Agron were descendants of Lydus, son of Atys, from whom this whole Lydian district got its name; before that it was called the land of the Meii.

The Heraclidae, descendants of Heracles and a female slave of Iardanus, received the sovereignty from these and held it, because of an oracle; and they ruled for twenty-two generations, or five hundred and five years, son succeeding father, down to Candaules son of Myrsus.

This Candaules, then, fell in love with his own wife, so much so that he believed her to be by far the most beautiful woman in the world; and believing this, he praised her beauty beyond measure to Gyges son of Dascylus, who was his favorite among his bodyguard; for it was to Gyges that he entrusted all his most important secrets.

After a little while, Candaules, doomed to misfortune, spoke to Gyges thus: “Gyges, I do not think that you believe what I say about the beauty of my wife; men trust their ears less than their eyes: so you must see her naked.” Gyges protested loudly at this.

“Master,” he said, “what an unsound suggestion, that I should see my mistress naked! When a woman's clothes come off, she dispenses with her modesty, too.

Men have long ago made wise rules from which one ought to learn; one of these is that one should mind one's own business. As for me, I believe that your queen is the most beautiful of all women, and I ask you not to ask of me what is lawless.”

Speaking thus, Gyges resisted: for he was afraid that some evil would come of it for him. But this was Candaules' answer: “Courage, Gyges! Do not be afraid of me, that I say this to test you, or of my wife, that you will have any harm from her. I will arrange it so that she shall never know that you have seen her.

I will bring you into the chamber where she and I lie and conceal you behind the open door; and after I have entered, my wife too will come to bed. There is a chair standing near the entrance of the room: on this she will lay each article of her clothing as she takes it off, and you will be able to look upon her at your leisure.

Then, when she moves from the chair to the bed, turning her back on you, be careful she does not see you going out through the doorway.”

As Gyges could not escape, he consented. Candaules, when he judged it to be time for bed, brought Gyges into the chamber; his wife followed presently, and when she had come in and was laying aside her garments, Gyges saw her;

when she turned her back upon him to go to bed, he slipped from the room. The woman glimpsed him as he went out, and perceived what her husband had done. But though shamed, she did not cry out or let it be seen that she had perceived anything, for she meant to punish Candaules;

since among the Lydians and most of the foreign peoples it is felt as a great shame that even a man be seen naked.

For the present she made no sign and kept quiet. But as soon as it was day, she prepared those of her household whom she saw were most faithful to her, and called Gyges. He, supposing that she knew nothing of what had been done, answered the summons; for he was used to attending the queen whenever she summoned him.

When Gyges came, the lady addressed him thus: “Now, Gyges, you have two ways before you; decide which you will follow. You must either kill Candaules and take me and the throne of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia for your own, or be killed yourself now without more ado; that will prevent you from obeying all Candaules' commands in the future and seeing what you should not see.

One of you must die: either he, the contriver of this plot, or you, who have outraged all custom by looking on me uncovered.” Gyges stood awhile astonished at this; presently, he begged her not to compel him to such a choice.

But when he could not deter her, and saw that dire necessity was truly upon him either to kill his master or himself be killed by others, he chose his own life. Then he asked: “Since you force me against my will to kill my master, I would like to know how we are to lay our hands on him.”

She replied, “You shall come at him from the same place where he made you view me naked: attack him in his sleep.”

When they had prepared this plot, and night had fallen, Gyges followed the woman into the chamber (for Gyges was not released, nor was there any means of deliverance, but either he or Candaules must die). She gave him a dagger and hid him behind the same door;

and presently he stole out and killed Candaules as he slept. Thus he made himself master of the king's wife and sovereignty. He is mentioned in the iambic verses of Archilochus of Parus who lived about the same time.

So he took possession of the sovereign power and was confirmed in it by the Delphic oracle. For when the Lydians took exception to what was done to Candaules, and took up arms, the faction of Gyges came to an agreement with the rest of the people that if the oracle should ordain him king of the Lydians, then he would reign; but if not, then he would return the kingship to the Heraclidae.

The oracle did so ordain, and Gyges thus became king. However, the Pythian priestess declared that the Heraclidae would have vengeance on Gyges' posterity in the fifth generation; an utterance to which the Lydians and their kings paid no regard until it was fulfilled.

Thus the Mermnadae robbed the Heraclidae of the sovereignty and took it for themselves. Having gotten it, Gyges sent many offerings to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi : there are very many silver offerings of his there; and besides the silver, he dedicated a hoard of gold, among which six golden bowls are the offerings especially worthy of mention.

These weigh thirty talents and stand in the treasury of the Corinthians; although in truth it is not the treasury of the Corinthian people but of Cypselus son of Eetion. This Gyges then was the first foreigner whom we know who placed offerings at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi after the king of Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia , Midas son of Gordias.

For Midas too made an offering: namely, the royal seat on which he sat to give judgment, and a marvellous seat it is. It is set in the same place as the bowls of Gyges. This gold and the silver offered by Gyges is called by the Delphians “Gygian” after its dedicator.

As soon as Gyges came to the throne, he too, like others, led an army into the lands of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus and Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) Smyrna ; and he took the city of Colophon [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) Colophon . But as he did nothing else great in his reign of thirty-eight years, I shall say no more of him, and shall speak instead of Ardys son of Gyges, who succeeded him. He took Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) Priene and invaded the country of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus ; and it was while he was monarch of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis that the Cimmerians, driven from their homes by the nomad Scythians, came into Asia (continent) Asia , and took Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , all but the acropolis.

Ardys reigned for forty-nine years and was succeeded by his son Sadyattes, who reigned for twelve years; and after Sadyattes came Alyattes,

who waged war against Deioces' descendant Cyaxares and the Medes, drove the Cimmerians out of Asia (continent) Asia , took Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) Smyrna (which was a colony from Colophon [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) Colophon ), and invaded the lands of Klazomenai [26.7833,38.3167] (Perseus) Clazomenae . But he did not return from these as he wished, but with great disaster. Of other deeds done by him in his reign, these were the most notable:

He continued the war against the Milesians which his father had begun. This was how he attacked and besieged Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus : he sent his army, marching to the sound of pipes and harps and bass and treble flutes, to invade when the crops in the land were ripe;

and whenever he came to the Milesian territory, he neither demolished nor burnt nor tore the doors off the country dwellings, but let them stand unharmed; but he destroyed the trees and the crops of the land, and so returned to where he came from;

for as the Milesians had command of the sea, it was of no use for his army to besiege their city. The reason that the Lydian did not destroy the houses was this: that the Milesians might have homes from which to plant and cultivate their land, and that there might be the fruit of their toil for his invading army to lay waste.

He waged war in this way for eleven years, and in these years two great disasters overtook the Milesians, one at the battle of Limeneion in their own territory, and the other in the valley of the Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander .

For six of these eleven years Sadyattes son of Ardys was still ruler of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia , and it was he who invaded the lands of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , for it was he who had begun the war; for the following five the war was waged by Sadyattes' son Alyattes, who, as I have indicated before, inherited the war from his father and carried it on vigorously.

None of the Ionians helped to lighten this war for the Milesians, except the Chians: these lent their aid in return for a similar service done for them; for the Milesians had previously helped the Chians in their war against the Erythraeans.

In the twelfth year, when the Lydian army was burning the crops, the fire set in the crops, blown by a strong wind, caught the temple of Athena called Athena of Assesos, and the temple burned to the ground.

For the present no notice was taken of this. But after the army had returned to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , Alyattes fell ill; and, as his sickness lasted longer than it should, he sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to inquire of the oracle, either at someone's urging or by his own wish to question the god about his sickness.

But when the messengers came to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , the Pythian priestess would not answer them before they restored the temple of Athena at Assesos in the Milesian territory, which they had burnt.

I know this much to be so because the Delphians told me. The Milesians add that Periander son of Cypselus, a close friend of the Thrasybulus who then was sovereign of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , learned what reply the oracle had given to Alyattes, and sent a messenger to tell Thrasybulus so that his friend, forewarned, could make his plans accordingly.

The Milesians say it happened so. Then, when the Delphic reply was brought to Alyattes, he promptly sent a herald to Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , offering to make a truce with Thrasybulus and the Milesians during his rebuilding of the temple. So the envoy went to Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus . But Thrasybulus, forewarned of the whole matter, and knowing what Alyattes meant to do, devised the following plan:

he brought together into the marketplace all the food in the city, from private stores and his own, and told the men of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus all to drink and celebrate together when he gave the word.

Thrasybulus did this so that when the herald from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis saw a great heap of food piled up, and the citizens celebrating, he would bring word of it to Alyattes:

and so it happened. The herald saw all this, gave Thrasybulus the message he had been instructed by the Lydian to deliver, and returned to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ; and this, as I learn, was the sole reason for the reconciliation.

For Alyattes had supposed that there was great scarcity in Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus and that the people were reduced to the last extremity of misery; but now on his herald's return from the town he heard an account contrary to his expectations;

so presently the Lydians and Milesians ended the war and agreed to be friends and allies, and Alyattes built not one but two temples of Athena at Assesos, and recovered from his illness. That is the story of Alyattes' war against Thrasybulus and the Milesians.

Periander, who disclosed the oracle's answer to Thrasybulus, was the son of Cypselus, and sovereign of Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth . The Corinthians say (and the Lesbians agree) that the most marvellous thing that happened to him in his life was the landing on Taenarus of Arion of Methymna [26.2,39.3333] (Perseus) Methymna , brought there by a dolphin. This Arion was a lyre-player second to none in that age; he was the first man whom we know to compose and name the dithyramb which he afterwards taught at Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth .

They say that this Arion, who spent most of his time with Periander, wished to sail to Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe Italy and Sicily [14,37.5] (region), Italy, Europe Sicily , and that after he had made a lot of money there he wanted to come back to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth .

Trusting none more than the Corinthians, he hired a Corinthian vessel to carry him from Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe Tarentum . But when they were out at sea, the crew plotted to take Arion's money and cast him overboard. Discovering this, he earnestly entreated them, asking for his life and offering them his money.

But the crew would not listen to him, and told him either to kill himself and so receive burial on land or else to jump into the sea at once.

Abandoned to this extremity, Arion asked that, since they had made up their minds, they would let him stand on the half-deck in all his regalia and sing; and he promised that after he had sung he would do himself in.

The men, pleased at the thought of hearing the best singer in the world, drew away toward the waist of the vessel from the stern. Arion, putting on all his regalia and taking his lyre, stood up on the half-deck and sang the “Stirring Song,” and when the song was finished he threw himself into the sea, as he was with all his regalia.

So the crew sailed away to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth ; but a dolphin (so the story goes) took Arion on his back and bore him to Taenarus. Landing there, he went to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth in his regalia, and when he arrived, he related all that had happened.

Periander, skeptical, kept him in confinement, letting him go nowhere, and waited for the sailors. When they arrived, they were summoned and asked what news they brought of Arion. While they were saying that he was safe in Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe Italy and that they had left him flourishing at Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe Tarentum , Arion appeared before them, just as he was when he jumped from the ship; astonished, they could no longer deny what was proved against them.

This is what the Corinthians and Lesbians say, and there is a little bronze memorial of Arion on Taenarus, the figure of a man riding upon a dolphin.

Alyattes the Lydian, his war with the Milesians finished, died after a reign of fifty-seven years.

He was the second of his family to make an offering to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi (after recovering from his illness) of a great silver bowl on a stand of welded iron. Among all the offerings at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , this is the most worth seeing, and is the work of Glaucus the Chian, the only one of all men who discovered how to weld iron.

After the death of Alyattes, his son Croesus, then thirty-five years of age, came to the throne. The first Greeks whom he attacked were the Ephesians.

These, besieged by him, dedicated their city to Artemis; they did this by attaching a rope to the city wall from the temple of the goddess, which stood seven stades away from the ancient city which was then besieged.

These were the first whom Croesus attacked; afterwards he made war on the Ionian and Aeolian cities in turn, upon different pretexts: he found graver charges where he could, but sometimes alleged very petty grounds of offense.

Then, when he had subjugated all the Asiatic Greeks of the mainland and made them tributary to him, he planned to build ships and attack the islanders;

but when his preparations for shipbuilding were underway, either Bias of Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) Priene or Pittacus of Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) Mytilene (the story is told of both) came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and, asked by Croesus for news about Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , put an end to the shipbuilding by giving the following answer:

“O King, the islanders are buying ten thousand horse, intending to march to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis against you.” Croesus, thinking that he spoke the truth, said: “Would that the gods would put this in the heads of the islanders, to come on horseback against the sons of the Lydians!” Then the other answered and said:

“O King, you appear to me earnestly to wish to catch the islanders riding horses on the mainland, a natural wish. And what else do you suppose the islanders wished, as soon as they heard that you were building ships to attack them, than to catch Lydians on the seas, so as to be revenged on you for the Greeks who dwell on the mainland, whom you enslaved?”

Croesus was quite pleased with this conclusion, for he thought the man spoke reasonably and, heeding him, stopped building ships. Thus he made friends with the Ionians inhabiting the islands.

As time went on, Croesus subjugated almost all the nations west of the Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys ; for except the Cilicians and Lycians, all the rest Croesus held subject under him. These were the Lydians, Phrygians, Mysians, Mariandynians, Chalybes, Paphlagonians, the Thracian Thynians and Bithynians, Carians, Ionians, Dorians, Aeolians, and Pamphylians;

and after these were subdued and subject to Croesus in addition to the Lydians, all the sages from Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas who were living at that time, coming in different ways, came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , which was at the height of its property; and among them came Solon the Athenian, who, after making laws for the Athenians at their request, went abroad for ten years, sailing forth to see the world, he said. This he did so as not to be compelled to repeal any of the laws he had made,

since the Athenians themselves could not do that, for they were bound by solemn oaths to abide for ten years by whatever laws Solon should make.

So for that reason, and to see the world, Solon went to visit Amasis in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and then to Croesus in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis . When he got there, Croesus entertained him in the palace, and on the third or fourth day Croesus told his attendants to show Solon around his treasures, and they pointed out all those things that were great and blest.

After Solon had seen everything and had thought about it, Croesus found the opportunity to say, “My Athenian guest, we have heard a lot about you because of your wisdom and of your wanderings, how as one who loves learning you have traveled much of the world for the sake of seeing it, so now I desire to ask you who is the most fortunate man you have seen.”

Croesus asked this question believing that he was the most fortunate of men, but Solon, offering no flattery but keeping to the truth, said, “O King, it is Tellus the Athenian.”

Croesus was amazed at what he had said and replied sharply, “In what way do you judge Tellus to be the most fortunate?” Solon said, “Tellus was from a prosperous city, and his children were good and noble. He saw children born to them all, and all of these survived. His life was prosperous by our standards, and his death was most glorious:

when the Athenians were fighting their neighbors in Eleusis [23.5583,38.0417] (Perseus) Eleusis , he came to help, routed the enemy, and died very finely. The Athenians buried him at public expense on the spot where he fell and gave him much honor.”

When Solon had provoked him by saying that the affairs of Tellus were so fortunate, Croesus asked who he thought was next, fully expecting to win second prize. Solon answered, “Cleobis and Biton.

They were of Argive stock, had enough to live on, and on top of this had great bodily strength. Both had won prizes in the athletic contests, and this story is told about them: there was a festival of Hera in Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos , and their mother absolutely had to be conveyed to the temple by a team of oxen. But their oxen had not come back from the fields in time, so the youths took the yoke upon their own shoulders under constraint of time. They drew the wagon, with their mother riding atop it, traveling five miles until they arrived at the temple.

When they had done this and had been seen by the entire gathering, their lives came to an excellent end, and in their case the god made clear that for human beings it is a better thing to die than to live. The Argive men stood around the youths and congratulated them on their strength; the Argive women congratulated their mother for having borne such children.

She was overjoyed at the feat and at the praise, so she stood before the image and prayed that the goddess might grant the best thing for man to her children Cleobis and Biton, who had given great honor to the goddess.

After this prayer they sacrificed and feasted. The youths then lay down in the temple and went to sleep and never rose again; death held them there. The Argives made and dedicated at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi statues of them as being the best of men.”

Thus Solon granted second place in happiness to these men. Croesus was vexed and said, “My Athenian guest, do you so much despise our happiness that you do not even make us worth as much as common men?” Solon replied, “Croesus, you ask me about human affairs, and I know that the divine is entirely grudging and troublesome to us.

In a long span of time it is possible to see many things that you do not want to, and to suffer them, too. I set the limit of a man's life at seventy years;

these seventy years have twenty-five thousand, two hundred days, leaving out the intercalary month. But if you make every other year longer by one month, so that the seasons agree opportunely, then there are thirty-five intercalary months during the seventy years, and from these months there are one thousand fifty days.

Out of all these days in the seventy years, all twenty-six thousand, two hundred and fifty of them, not one brings anything at all like another. So, Croesus, man is entirely chance.

To me you seem to be very rich and to be king of many people, but I cannot answer your question before I learn that you ended your life well. The very rich man is not more fortunate than the man who has only his daily needs, unless he chances to end his life with all well. Many very rich men are unfortunate, many of moderate means are lucky.

The man who is very rich but unfortunate surpasses the lucky man in only two ways, while the lucky surpasses the rich but unfortunate in many. The rich man is more capable of fulfilling his appetites and of bearing a great disaster that falls upon him, and it is in these ways that he surpasses the other. The lucky man is not so able to support disaster or appetite as is the rich man, but his luck keeps these things away from him, and he is free from deformity and disease, has no experience of evils, and has fine children and good looks.

If besides all this he ends his life well, then he is the one whom you seek, the one worthy to be called fortunate. But refrain from calling him fortunate before he dies; call him lucky.

It is impossible for one who is only human to obtain all these things at the same time, just as no land is self-sufficient in what it produces. Each country has one thing but lacks another; whichever has the most is the best. Just so no human being is self-sufficient; each person has one thing but lacks another.

Whoever passes through life with the most and then dies agreeably is the one who, in my opinion, O King, deserves to bear this name. It is necessary to see how the end of every affair turns out, for the god promises fortune to many people and then utterly ruins them.”

By saying this, Solon did not at all please Croesus, who sent him away without regard for him, but thinking him a great fool, because he ignored the present good and told him to look to the end of every affair.

But after Solon's departure divine retribution fell heavily on Croesus; as I guess, because he supposed himself to be blessed beyond all other men. Directly, as he slept, he had a dream, which showed him the truth of the evil things which were going to happen concerning his son.

He had two sons, one of whom was ruined, for he was mute, but the other, whose name was Atys, was by far the best in every way of all of his peers. The dream showed this Atys to Croesus, how he would lose him struck and killed by a spear of iron.

So Croesus, after he awoke and considered, being frightened by the dream, brought in a wife for his son, and although Atys was accustomed to command the Lydian armies, Croesus now would not send him out on any such enterprise, while he took the javelins and spears and all such things that men use for war from the men's apartments and piled them in his store room, lest one should fall on his son from where it hung.

Now while Croesus was occupied with the marriage of his son, a Phrygian of the royal house came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , in great distress and with unclean hands. This man came to Croesus' house, and asked to be purified according to the custom of the country; so Croesus purified him (

the Lydians have the same manner of purification as the Greeks), and when he had done everything customary, he asked the Phrygian where he came from and who he was:

“Friend,” he said, “who are you, and from what place in Phrygia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Phrygia do you come as my suppliant? And what man or woman have you killed?” “O King,” the man answered, “I am the son of Gordias the son of Midas, and my name is Adrastus; I killed my brother accidentally, and I come here banished by my father and deprived of all.”

Croesus answered, “All of your family are my friends, and you have come to friends, where you shall lack nothing, staying in my house. As for your misfortune, bear it as lightly as possible and you will gain most.”

So Adrastus lived in Croesus' house. About this same time a great monster of a boar appeared on the Mysian Olympus, who would come off that mountain and ravage the fields of the Mysians. The Mysians had gone up against him often; but they never did him any harm but were hurt by him themselves.

At last they sent messengers to Croesus, with this message: “O King, a great monster of a boar has appeared in the land, who is destroying our fields; for all our attempts, we cannot kill him; so now we ask you to send your son and chosen young men and dogs with us, so that we may drive him out of the country.”

Such was their request, but Croesus remembered the prophecy of his dream and answered them thus: “Do not mention my son again: I will not send him with you. He is newly married, and that is his present concern. But I will send chosen Lydians, and all the huntsmen, and I will tell those who go to be as eager as possible to help you to drive the beast out of the country.”

This was his answer, and the Mysians were satisfied with it. But the son of Croesus now entered, having heard what the Mysians had asked for; and when Croesus refused to send his son with them, the young man said,

“Father, it was once thought very fine and noble for us to go to war and the chase and win renown; but now you have barred me from both of these, although you have seen neither cowardice nor lack of spirit in me. With what face can I now show myself whenever I go to and from the market-place?

What will the men of the city think of me, and what my newly wedded wife? With what kind of man will she think that she lives? So either let me go to the hunt, or show me by reasoning that what you are doing is best for me.”

“My son,” answered Croesus, “I do this not because I have seen cowardice or anything unseemly in you, but the vision of a dream stood over me in my sleep, and told me that you would be short-lived, for you would be killed by a spear of iron.

It is because of that vision that I hurried your marriage and do not send you on any enterprise that I have in hand, but keep guard over you, so that perhaps I may rob death of you during my lifetime. You are my only son: for that other, since he is ruined, he doesn't exist for me.”

“Father,” the youth replied, “no one can blame you for keeping guard over me, when you have seen such a vision; but it is my right to show you what you do not perceive, and why you mistake the meaning of the dream.

You say that the dream told you that I should be killed by a spear of iron? But has a boar hands? Has it that iron spear which you dread? Had the dream said I should be killed by a tusk or some other thing proper to a boar, you would be right in acting as you act; but no, it was to be by a spear. Therefore, since it is not against men that we are to fight, let me go.”

Croesus answered, “My son, your judgment concerning the dream has somewhat reassured me; and being reassured by you, I change my thinking and permit you to go to the chase.”

Having said this, Croesus sent for Adrastus the Phrygian and when he came addressed him thus: “Adrastus, when you were struck by ugly misfortune, for which I do not blame you, it was I who cleansed you, and received and still keep you in my house, defraying all your keep.

Now then, as you owe me a return of good service for the good which I have done you, I ask that you watch over my son as he goes out to the chase. See that no thieving criminals meet you on the way, to do you harm.

Besides, it is only right that you too should go where you can win renown by your deeds. That is fitting for your father's son; and you are strong enough besides.”

“O King,” Adrastus answered, “I would not otherwise have gone into such an arena. One so unfortunate as I should not associate with the prosperous among his peers; nor have I the wish so to do, and for many reasons I would have held back.

But now, since you urge it and I must please you (since I owe you a return of good service), I am ready to do this; and as for your son, in so far as I can protect him, look for him to come back unharmed.”

So when Adrastus had answered Croesus thus, they went out provided with chosen young men and dogs. When they came to Olympus (mountain), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly, Greece, Europe Mount Olympus , they hunted for the beast and, finding him, formed a circle and threw their spears at him:

then the guest called Adrastus, the man who had been cleansed of the deed of blood, missed the boar with his spear and hit the son of Croesus.

So Atys was struck by the spear and fulfilled the prophecy of the dream. One ran to tell Croesus what had happened, and coming to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis told the king of the fight and the fate of his son.

Distraught by the death of his son, Croesus cried out the more vehemently because the killer was one whom he himself had cleansed of blood,

and in his great and terrible grief at this mischance he called on Zeus by three names—Zeus the Purifier, Zeus of the Hearth, Zeus of Comrades: the first, because he wanted the god to know what evil his guest had done him; the second, because he had received the guest into his house and thus unwittingly entertained the murderer of his son; and the third, because he had found his worst enemy in the man whom he had sent as a protector.

Soon the Lydians came, bearing the corpse, with the murderer following after. He then came and stood before the body and gave himself up to Croesus, holding out his hands and telling him to kill him over the corpse, mentioning his former misfortune, and that on top of that he had destroyed the one who purified him, and that he was not fit to live.

On hearing this, Croesus took pity on Adrastus, though his own sorrow was so great, and said to him, “Friend, I have from you the entire penalty, since you sentence yourself to death. But it is not you that I hold the cause of this evil, except in so far as you were the unwilling doer of it, but one of the gods, the same one who told me long ago what was to be.”

So Croesus buried his own son in such manner as was fitting. But Adrastus, son of Gordias who was son of Midas, this Adrastus, the destroyer of his own brother and of the man who purified him, when the tomb was undisturbed by the presence of men, killed himself there by the sepulcher, seeing clearly now that he was the most heavily afflicted of all whom he knew.

After the loss of his son, Croesus remained in deep sorrow for two years. After this time, the destruction by Cyrus son of Cambyses of the sovereignty of Astyages son of Cyaxares, and the growth of the power of the Persians, distracted Croesus from his mourning; and he determined, if he could, to forestall the increase of the Persian power before they became great.

Having thus determined, he at once made inquiries of the Greek and Libyan oracles, sending messengers separately to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , to Abai [22.9583,38.5917] (Perseus) Abae in Phocia, and to Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona , while others were despatched to Amphiaraus and Trophonius, and others to Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Branchidae in the Milesian country.

These are the Greek oracles to which Croesus sent for divination: and he told others to go inquire of Ammon in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya . His intent in sending was to test the knowledge of the oracles, so that, if they were found to know the truth, he might send again and ask if he should undertake an expedition against the Persians.

And when he sent to test these shrines he gave the Lydians these instructions: they were to keep track of the time from the day they left Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , and on the hundredth day inquire of the oracles what Croesus, king of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia , son of Alyattes, was doing then; then they were to write down whatever the oracles answered and bring the reports back to him.

Now none relate what answer was given by the rest of the oracles. But at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , no sooner had the Lydians entered the hall to inquire of the god and asked the question with which they were entrusted, than the Pythian priestess uttered the following hexameter verses:

“I know the number of the grains of sand and the extent of the sea, And understand the mute and hear the voiceless. The smell has come to my senses of a strong-shelled tortoise Boiling in a cauldron together with a lamb's flesh, Under which is bronze and over which is bronze.”

Having written down this inspired utterance of the Pythian priestess, the Lydians went back to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis . When the others as well who had been sent to various places came bringing their oracles, Croesus then unfolded and examined all the writings. Some of them in no way satisfied him. But when he read the Delphian message, he acknowledged it with worship and welcome, considering Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi as the only true place of divination, because it had discovered what he himself had done.

For after sending his envoys to the oracles, he had thought up something which no conjecture could discover, and carried it out on the appointed day: namely, he had cut up a tortoise and a lamb, and then boiled them in a cauldron of bronze covered with a lid of the same.

Such, then, was the answer from Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi delivered to Croesus. As to the reply which the Lydians received from the oracle of Amphiaraus when they had followed the due custom of the temple, I cannot say what it was, for nothing is recorded of it, except that Croesus believed that from this oracle too he had obtained a true answer.

After this, he tried to win the favor of the Delphian god with great sacrifices. He offered up three thousand beasts from all the kinds fit for sacrifice, and on a great pyre burnt couches covered with gold and silver, golden goblets, and purple cloaks and tunics; by these means he hoped the better to win the aid of the god, to whom he also commanded that every Lydian sacrifice what he could.

When the sacrifice was over, he melted down a vast store of gold and made ingots of it, the longer sides of which were of six and the shorter of three palms' length, and the height was one palm. There were a hundred and seventeen of these. Four of them were of refined gold, each weighing two talents and a half; the rest were of gold with silver alloy, each of two talents' weight.

He also had a figure of a lion made of refined gold, weighing ten talents. When the temple of Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi was burnt, this lion fell from the ingots which were the base on which it stood; and now it is in the treasury of the Corinthians, but weighs only six talents and a half, for the fire melted away three and a half talents.

When these offerings were ready, Croesus sent them to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , with other gifts besides: namely, two very large bowls, one of gold and one of silver. The golden bowl stood to the right, the silver to the left of the temple entrance.

These too were removed about the time of the temple's burning, and now the golden bowl, which weighs eight and a half talents and twelve minae, is in the treasury of the Clazomenians, and the silver bowl at the corner of the forecourt of the temple. This bowl holds six hundred nine-gallon measures: for the Delphians use it for a mixing-bowl at the feast of the Divine Appearance.

It is said by the Delphians to be the work of Theodorus of Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , and I agree with them, for it seems to me to be of no common workmanship. Moreover, Croesus sent four silver casks, which stand in the treasury of the Corinthians, and dedicated two sprinkling-vessels, one of gold, one of silver. The golden vessel bears the inscription “Given by the Lacedaemonians,” who claim it as their offering. But they are wrong,

for this, too, is Croesus' gift. The inscription was made by a certain Delphian, whose name I know but do not mention, out of his desire to please the Lacedaemonians. The figure of a boy, through whose hand the water runs, is indeed a Lacedaemonian gift; but they did not give either of the sprinkling-vessels.

Along with these Croesus sent, besides many other offerings of no great distinction, certain round basins of silver, and a female figure five feet high, which the Delphians assert to be the statue of the woman who was Croesus' baker. Moreover, he dedicated his own wife's necklaces and girdles.

Such were the gifts which he sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi . To Amphiaraus, of whose courage and fate he had heard, he dedicated a shield made entirely of gold and a spear all of solid gold, point and shaft alike. Both of these were until my time at Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) Thebes , in the Theban temple of Ismenian Apollo.

The Lydians who were to bring these gifts to the temples were instructed by Croesus to inquire of the oracles whether he was to send an army against the Persians and whether he was to add an army of allies.

When the Lydians came to the places where they were sent, they presented the offerings, and inquired of the oracles, in these words: “Croesus, king of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia and other nations, believing that here are the only true places of divination among men, endows you with such gifts as your wisdom deserves. And now he asks you whether he is to send an army against the Persians, and whether he is to add an army of allies.”

Such was their inquiry; and the judgment given to Croesus by each of the two oracles was the same: namely, that if he should send an army against the Persians he would destroy a great empire. And they advised him to discover the mightiest of the Greeks and make them his friends.

When the divine answers had been brought back and Croesus learned of them, he was very pleased with the oracles. So, altogether expecting that he would destroy the kingdom of Cyrus, he sent once again to Delphi [22.5,38.483] (inhabited place), Phocis, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Pytho and endowed the Delphians, whose number he had learned, with two gold staters apiece.

The Delphians, in return, gave Croesus and all Lydians the right of first consulting the oracle, exemption from all charges, the chief seats at festivals, and perpetual right of Delphian citizenship to whoever should wish it.

After his gifts to the Delphians, Croesus made a third inquiry of the oracle, for he wanted to use it to the full, having received true answers from it; and the question which he asked was whether his sovereignty would be of long duration. To this the Pythian priestess answered as follows:

“When the Medes have a mule as king, Just then, tender-footed Lydian, by the stone-strewn Hermus Flee and do not stay, and do not be ashamed to be a coward.”

When he heard these verses, Croesus was pleased with them above all, for he thought that a mule would never be king of the Medes instead of a man, and therefore that he and his posterity would never lose his empire. Then he sought very carefully to discover who the mightiest of the Greeks were, whom he should make his friends.

He found by inquiry that the chief peoples were the Lacedaemonians among those of Doric, and the Athenians among those of Ionic stock. These races, Ionian and Dorian, were the foremost in ancient time, the first a Pelasgian and the second a Hellenic people. The Pelasgian race has never yet left its home; the Hellenic has wandered often and far.

For in the days of king Deucalion it inhabited the land of Phthia [22.75,36.2667] (Perseus) Phthia , then the country called Histiaean, under Ossa and Olympus (mountain), Nomos Larisis, Thessaly, Greece, Europe Olympus , in the time of Dorus son of Hellen; driven from this Histiaean country by the Cadmeans, it settled about Pindus in the territory called Macedonian; from there again it migrated to Dryopia, and at last came from Dryopia into the Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , where it took the name of Dorian.

What language the Pelasgians spoke I cannot say definitely. But if one may judge by those that still remain of the Pelasgians who live above the Tyrrheni in the city of Creston —who were once neighbors of the people now called Dorians, and at that time inhabited the country which now is called Thessalian—

and of the Pelasgians who inhabited Placia and Scylace on the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont , who came to live among the Athenians, and by other towns too which were once Pelasgian and afterwards took a different name: if, as I said, one may judge by these, the Pelasgians spoke a language which was not Greek.

If, then, all the Pelasgian stock spoke so, then the Attic nation, being of Pelasgian blood, must have changed its language too at the time when it became part of the Hellenes. For the people of Creston and Placia have a language of their own in common, which is not the language of their neighbors; and it is plain that they still preserve the manner of speech which they brought with them in their migration into the places where they live.

But the Hellenic stock, it seems clear to me, has always had the same language since its beginning; yet being, when separated from the Pelasgians, few in number, they have grown from a small beginning to comprise a multitude of nations, chiefly because the Pelasgians and many other foreign peoples united themselves with them. Before that, I think, the Pelasgic stock nowhere increased much in number while it was of foreign speech.

Now of these two peoples, Croesus learned that the Attic was held in subjection and divided into factions by Pisistratus, son of Hippocrates, who at that time was sovereign over the Athenians. This Hippocrates was still a private man when a great marvel happened to him when he was at Olympia [21.6333,37.65] (Perseus) Olympia to see the games: when he had offered the sacrifice, the vessels, standing there full of meat and water, boiled without fire until they boiled over.

Chilon the Lacedaemonian, who happened to be there and who saw this marvel, advised Hippocrates not to take to his house a wife who could bear children, but if he had one already, then to send her away, and if he had a son, to disown him.

Hippocrates refused to follow the advice of Chilon; and afterward there was born to him this Pisistratus, who, when there was a feud between the Athenians of the coast under Megacles son of Alcmeon and the Athenians of the plain under Lycurgus son of Aristolaides, raised up a third faction, as he coveted the sovereign power. He collected partisans and pretended to champion the uplanders, and the following was his plan.

Wounding himself and his mules, he drove his wagon into the marketplace, with a story that he had escaped from his enemies, who would have killed him (so he said) as he was driving into the country. So he implored the people to give him a guard: and indeed he had won a reputation in his command of the army against the Megarians, when he had taken Nisaea and performed other great exploits.

Taken in, the Athenian people gave him a guard of chosen citizens, whom Pisistratus made clubmen instead of spearmen: for the retinue that followed him carried wooden clubs.

These rose with Pisistratus and took the Acropolis; and Pisistratus ruled the Athenians, disturbing in no way the order of offices nor changing the laws, but governing the city according to its established constitution and arranging all things fairly and well.

But after a short time the partisans of Megacles and of Lycurgus made common cause and drove him out. In this way Pisistratus first got Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and, as he had a sovereignty that was not yet firmly rooted, lost it. Presently his enemies who together had driven him out began to feud once more.

Then Megacles, harassed by factional strife, sent a message to Pisistratus offering him his daughter to marry and the sovereign power besides.

When this offer was accepted by Pisistratus, who agreed on these terms with Megacles, they devised a plan to bring Pisistratus back which, to my mind, was so exceptionally foolish that it is strange (since from old times the Hellenic stock has always been distinguished from foreign by its greater cleverness and its freedom from silly foolishness) that these men should devise such a plan to deceive Athenians, said to be the subtlest of the Greeks.

There was in the Paeanian deme a woman called Phya, three fingers short of six feet, four inches in height, and otherwise, too, well-formed. This woman they equipped in full armor and put in a chariot, giving her all the paraphernalia to make the most impressive spectacle, and so drove into the city; heralds ran before them, and when they came into town proclaimed as they were instructed:

“Athenians, give a hearty welcome to Pisistratus, whom Athena herself honors above all men and is bringing back to her own acropolis.” So the heralds went about proclaiming this; and immediately the report spread in the demes that Athena was bringing Pisistratus back, and the townsfolk, believing that the woman was the goddess herself, worshipped this human creature and welcomed Pisistratus.

Having got back his sovereignty in the manner which I have described, Pisistratus married Megacles' daughter according to his agreement with Megacles. But as he already had young sons, and as the Alcmeonid family were said to be under a curse, he had no wish that his newly-wedded wife bear him children, and therefore had unusual intercourse with her.

At first the woman hid the fact: presently she told her mother (whether interrogated or not, I do not know) and the mother told her husband. Megacles was very angry to be dishonored by Pisistratus; and in his anger he patched up his quarrel with the other faction. Pisistratus, learning what was going on, went alone away from the country altogether, and came to Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus) Eretria where he deliberated with his sons.

The opinion of Hippias prevailing, that they should recover the sovereignty, they set out collecting contributions from all the cities that owed them anything. Many of these gave great amounts, the Thebans more than any,

and in course of time, not to make a long story, everything was ready for their return: for they brought Argive mercenaries from the Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , and there joined them on his own initiative a man of Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos called Lygdamis, who was most keen in their cause and brought them money and men.

So after ten years they set out from Eretria [23.8083,38.3917] (Perseus) Eretria and returned home. The first place in Attica [23.5,38.83] (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Attica which they took and held was Marathon: and while encamped there they were joined by their partisans from the city, and by others who flocked to them from the country—demesmen who loved the rule of one more than freedom. These, then, assembled;

but the Athenians in the city, who while Pisistratus was collecting money and afterwards when he had taken Marathon took no notice of it, did now, and when they learned that he was marching from Marathon against Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens , they set out to attack him.

They came out with all their force to meet the returning exiles. Pisistratus' men encountered the enemy when they had reached the temple of Pallenian Athena in their march from Marathon towards the city, and encamped face to face with them.

“The cast is made, the net spread, The tunny-fish shall flash in the moonlit night.”

So Amphilytus spoke, being inspired; Pisistratus understood him and, saying that he accepted the prophecy, led his army against the enemy. The Athenians of the city had by this time had breakfast, and after breakfast some were dicing and some were sleeping: they were attacked by Pisistratus' men and put to flight.

So they fled, and Pisistratus devised a very subtle plan to keep them scattered and prevent them assembling again: he had his sons mount and ride forward: they overtook the fugitives and spoke to them as they were instructed by Pisistratus, telling them to take heart and each to depart to his home.

The Athenians did, and by this means Pisistratus gained Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens for the third time, rooting his sovereignty in a strong guard and revenue collected both from Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and from the district of the river Strymon, and he took hostage the sons of the Athenians who remained and did not leave the city at once, and placed these in Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos .

(He had conquered Nisos Naxos [25.583,32.33] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Naxos too and put Lygdamis in charge.) And besides this, he purified the island of Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos as a result of oracles, and this is how he did it: he removed all the dead that were buried in ground within sight of the temple and conveyed them to another part of Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos .

So Pisistratus was sovereign of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens : and as for the Athenians, some had fallen in the battle, and some, with the Alcmeonids, were exiles from their native land.

So Croesus learned that at that time such problems were oppressing the Athenians, but that the Lacedaemonians had escaped from the great evils and had mastered the Tegeans in war. In the kingship of Leon and Hegesicles at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , the Lacedaemonians were successful in all their other wars but met disaster only against the Tegeans.

Before this they had been the worst-governed of nearly all the Hellenes and had had no dealings with strangers, but they changed to good government in this way: Lycurgus, a man of reputation among the Spartans, went to the oracle at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi . As soon as he entered the hall, the priestess said in hexameter:

You have come to my rich temple, Lycurgus, A man dear to Zeus and to all who have Olympian homes. I am in doubt whether to pronounce you man or god, But I think rather you are a god, Lycurgus.

Some say that the Pythia also declared to him the constitution that now exists at Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , but the Lacedaemonians themselves say that Lycurgus brought it from Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete when he was guardian of his nephew Leobetes, the Spartan king.

Once he became guardian, he changed all the laws and took care that no one transgressed the new ones. Lycurgus afterwards established their affairs of war: the sworn divisions, the bands of thirty, the common meals; also the ephors and the council of elders.

Thus they changed their bad laws to good ones, and when Lycurgus died they built him a temple and now worship him greatly. Since they had good land and many men, they immediately flourished and prospered. They were not content to live in peace, but, confident that they were stronger than the Arcadians, asked the oracle at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi about gaining all the Arcadian land.

You ask me for Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Arcadia ? You ask too much; I grant it not. There are many men in Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Arcadia , eaters of acorns, Who will hinder you. But I grudge you not. I will give you Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea to beat with your feet in dancing, And its fair plain to measure with a rope.

When the Lacedaemonians heard the oracle reported, they left the other Arcadians alone and marched on Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea carrying chains, relying on the deceptive oracle. They were confident they would enslave the Tegeans, but they were defeated in battle.

Those taken alive were bound in the very chains they had brought with them, and they measured the Tegean plain with a rope by working the fields. The chains in which they were bound were still preserved in my day, hanging up at the temple of Athena Alea.

In the previous war the Lacedaemonians continually fought unsuccessfully against the Tegeans, but in the time of Croesus and the kingship of Anaxandrides and Ariston in Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon the Spartans had gained the upper hand. This is how:

when they kept being defeated by the Tegeans, they sent ambassadors to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to ask which god they should propitiate to prevail against the Tegeans in war. The Pythia responded that they should bring back the bones of Orestes, son of Agamemnon.

When they were unable to discover Orestes' tomb, they sent once more to the god to ask where he was buried. The Pythia responded in hexameter to the messengers:

There is a place Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea in the smooth plain of Arcadia [22.25,37.583] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Arcadia , Where two winds blow under strong compulsion. Blow lies upon blow, woe upon woe. There the life-giving earth covers the son of Agamemnon. Bring him back, and you shall be lord of Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea .

When the Lacedaemonians heard this, they were no closer to discovery, though they looked everywhere. Finally it was found by Lichas, who was one of the Spartans who are called “doers of good deeds.”. These men are those citizens who retire from the knights, the five oldest each year. They have to spend the year in which they retire from the knights being sent here and there by the Spartan state, never resting in their efforts.

It was Lichas, one of these men, who found the tomb in Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea by a combination of luck and skill. At that time there was free access to Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea , so he went into a blacksmith's shop and watched iron being forged, standing there in amazement at what he saw done.

The smith perceived that he was amazed, so he stopped what he was doing and said, “My Laconian guest, if you had seen what I saw, then you would really be amazed, since you marvel so at ironworking.

I wanted to dig a well in the courtyard here, and in my digging I hit upon a coffin twelve feet long. I could not believe that there had ever been men taller than now, so I opened it and saw that the corpse was just as long as the coffin. I measured it and then reburied it.” So the smith told what he had seen, and Lichas thought about what was said and reckoned that this was Orestes, according to the oracle.

In the smith's two bellows he found the winds, hammer and anvil were blow upon blow, and the forging of iron was woe upon woe, since he figured that iron was discovered as an evil for the human race.

After reasoning this out, he went back to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta and told the Lacedaemonians everything. They made a pretence of bringing a charge against him and banishing him. Coming to Tegea [22.4,37.5] (Perseus) Tegea , he explained his misfortune to the smith and tried to rent the courtyard, but the smith did not want to lease it.

Finally he persuaded him and set up residence there. He dug up the grave and collected the bones, then hurried off to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta with them. Ever since then the Spartans were far superior to the Tegeans whenever they met each other in battle. By the time of Croesus' inquiry, the Spartans had subdued most of the Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese .

Croesus, then, aware of all this, sent messengers to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta with gifts to ask for an alliance, having instructed them what to say. They came and said:

“Croesus, King of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia and other nations, has sent us with this message: ‘Lacedaemonians, the god has declared that I should make the Greek my friend; now, therefore, since I learn that you are the leaders of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , I invite you, as the oracle bids; I would like to be your friend and ally, without deceit or guile.’”

Croesus proposed this through his messengers; and the Lacedaemonians, who had already heard of the oracle given to Croesus, welcomed the coming of the Lydians and swore to be his friends and allies; and indeed they were obliged by certain benefits which they had received before from the king.

For the Lacedaemonians had sent to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis to buy gold, intending to use it for the statue of Apollo which now stands on Thornax in Laconia [22.583,37] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Laconia ; and Croesus, when they offered to buy it, made them a free gift of it.

For this reason, and because he had chosen them as his friends before all the other Greeks, the Lacedaemonians accepted the alliance. So they declared themselves ready to serve him when he should require, and moreover they made a bowl of bronze, engraved around the rim outside with figures, and large enough to hold twenty-seven hundred gallons, and brought it with the intention of making a gift in return to Croesus.

This bowl never reached Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , for which two reasons are given: the Lacedaemonians say that when the bowl was near Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos on its way to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , the Samians descended upon them in warships and carried it off;

but the Samians themselves say that the Lacedaemonians who were bringing the bowl, coming too late, and learning that Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and Croesus were taken, sold it in Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos to certain private men, who set it up in the the temple of Hera. And it may be that the sellers of the bowl, when they returned to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , said that they had been robbed of it by the Samians. Such are the tales about the bowl.

Croesus, mistaking the meaning of the oracle, invaded Cappadocia [36,38.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cappadocia , expecting to destroy Cyrus and the Persian power.

But while he was preparing to march against the Persians, a certain Lydian, who was already held to be a wise man, and who, from the advice which he now gave, won a great name among the Lydians, advised him as follows (his name was Sandanis): “O King, you are getting ready to march against men who wear trousers of leather and whose complete wardrobe is of leather, and who eat not what they like but what they have; for their land is stony.

Further, they do not use wine, but drink water, have no figs to eat, or anything else that is good. Now if you conquer them, of what will you deprive them, since they have nothing? But if on the other hand you are conquered, then look how many good things you will lose; for once they have tasted of our blessings they will cling so tightly to them that nothing will pry them away.

For myself, then, I thank the gods that they do not put it in the heads of the Persians to march against the Lydians.” Sandanis spoke thus but he did not persuade Croesus. Indeed, before they conquered the Lydians, the Persians had no luxury and no comforts.

Now the Cappadocians are called by the Greeks Syrians, and these Syrians before the Persian rule were subjects of the Medes, and, at this time, of Cyrus.

For the boundary of the Median and Lydian empires was the river Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys , which flows from the Armenian mountains first through Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia and afterwards between the Matieni on the right and the Phrygians on the other hand; then, passing these and still flowing north, it separates the Cappadocian Syrians on the right from the Paphlagonians on the left.

Thus the Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys river cuts off nearly the whole of the lower part of Asia (continent) Asia from the Cyprian to the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine sea . Here is the narrowest neck of all this land; the length of the journey across for a man traveling unencumbered is five days.

The reasons for Croesus' expedition against Cappadocia [36,38.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cappadocia were these: he desired to gain territory in addition to his own, and (these were the chief causes) he trusted the oracle and wished to avenge Astyages on Cyrus; for Cyrus, son of Cambyses, had conquered Astyages and held him in subjection.

Now Astyages, son of Cyaxares and the king of Media, was Croesus' brother-in-law: and this is how he came to be so.

A tribe of wandering Scythians separated itself from the rest, and escaped into Median territory. This was then ruled by Cyaxares, son of Phraortes, son of Deioces. Cyaxares at first treated the Scythians kindly, as suppliants for his mercy; and, as he had a high regard for them, he entrusted boys to their tutelage to be taught their language and the skill of archery.

As time went on, it happened that the Scythians, who were accustomed to go hunting and always to bring something back, once had taken nothing, and when they returned empty-handed, Cyaxares treated them very roughly and contemptuously (being, as appears from this, prone to anger).

The Scythians, feeling themselves wronged by the treatment they had from Cyaxares, planned to take one of the boys who were their pupils and cut him in pieces; then, dressing the flesh as they were accustomed to dress the animals which they killed, to bring and give it to Cyaxares as if it were the spoils of the hunt; and after that, to make their way with all speed to Alyattes son of Sadyattes at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis . All this they did.

Cyaxares and the guests who ate with him dined on the boy's flesh, and the Scythians, having done as they planned, fled to Alyattes for protection.

After this, since Alyattes would not give up the Scythians to Cyaxares at his demand, there was war between the Lydians and the Medes for five years; each won many victories over the other, and once they fought a battle by night.

They were still warring with equal success, when it happened, at an encounter which occurred in the sixth year, that during the battle the day was suddenly turned to night. Thales of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus had foretold this loss of daylight to the Ionians, fixing it within the year in which the change did indeed happen.

So when the Lydians and Medes saw the day turned to night, they stopped fighting, and both were the more eager to make peace. Those who reconciled them were Syennesis the Cilician and Labynetus the Babylonian;

they brought it about that there should be a sworn agreement and a compact of marriage between them: they judged that Alyattes should give his daughter Aryenis to Astyages, son of Cyaxares; for without strong constraint agreements will not keep their force.

These nations make sworn compacts as do the Greeks; and besides, when they cut the skin of their arms, they lick each other's blood.

Cyrus had subjugated this Astyages, then, Cyrus' own mother's father, for the reason which I shall presently disclose.

Having this reason to quarrel with Cyrus, Croesus sent to ask the oracles if he should march against the Persians; and when a deceptive answer came he thought it to be favorable to him, and so led his army into the Persian territory.

When he came to the river Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys , he transported his army across it—by the bridges which were there then, as I maintain; but the general belief of the Greeks is that Thales of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus got the army across.

The story is that, as Croesus did not know how his army could pass the river (as the aforesaid bridges did not yet exist then), Thales, who was in the encampment, made the river, which flowed on the left of the army, also flow on the right, in the following way.

Starting from a point on the river upstream from the camp, he dug a deep semi-circular trench, so that the stream, turned from its ancient course, would flow in the trench to the rear of the camp and, passing it, would issue into its former bed, with the result that as soon as the river was thus divided into two, both channels could be forded.

Some even say that the ancient channel dried up altogether. But I do not believe this; for in that case, how did they pass the river when they were returning?

Passing over with his army, Croesus then came to the part of Cappadocia [36,38.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cappadocia called Pteria [35.33,39.733] (deserted settlement), Yozgat, Ic Anadolu, Turkey, Asia Pteria (it is the strongest part of this country and lies on the line of the city of Sinope [35.15,42.0167] (Perseus) Sinope on the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine sea ), where he encamped and devastated the farms of the Syrians;

and he took and enslaved the city of the Pterians, and took all the places around it also, and drove the Syrians from their homes, though they had done him no harm. Cyrus, mustering his army, advanced to oppose Croesus, gathering to him all those who lived along the way.

But before beginning his march, he sent heralds to the Ionians to try to draw them away from Croesus. The Ionians would not be prevailed on; but when Cyrus arrived and encamped face to face with Croesus, there in the Pterian country the armies had a trial of strength.

The fighting was fierce, many on both sides fell, and at nightfall they disengaged with neither side victorious. The two sides contended thus.

Croesus was not content with the size of his force, for his army that had engaged was far smaller than that of Cyrus; therefore, when on the day after the battle Cyrus did not try attacking again, he marched away to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , intending to summon the Egyptians in accordance with their treaty

(for before making an alliance with the Lacedaemonians he had made one also with Amasis king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ), and to send for the Babylonians also (for with these too he had made an alliance, Labynetus at this time being their sovereign),

and to summon the Lacedaemonians to join him at a fixed time. He had in mind to muster all these forces and assemble his own army, then to wait until the winter was over and march against the Persians at the beginning of spring.

With such an intention, as soon as he returned to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , he sent heralds to all his allies, summoning them to assemble at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis in five months' time; and as for the soldiers whom he had with him, who had fought with the Persians, all of them who were mercenaries he discharged, never thinking that after a contest so equal Cyrus would march against Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis .

This was how Croesus reasoned. Meanwhile, snakes began to swarm in the outer part of the city; and when they appeared the horses, leaving their accustomed pasture, devoured them. When Croesus saw this he thought it a portent, and so it was.

He at once sent to the homes of the Telmessian interpreters, to inquire concerning it; but though his messengers came and learned from the Telmessians what the portent meant, they could not bring back word to Croesus, for he was a prisoner before they could make their voyage back to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis .

Nonetheless, this was the judgment of the Telmessians: that Croesus must expect a foreign army to attack his country, and that when it came, it would subjugate the inhabitants of the land: for the snake, they said, was the offspring of the land, but the horse was an enemy and a foreigner. This was the answer which the Telmessians gave Croesus, knowing as yet nothing of the fate of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and of the king himself; but when they gave it, Croesus was already taken.

When Croesus marched away after the battle in the Pterian country, Cyrus, learning that Croesus had gone intending to disband his army, deliberated and perceived that it would be opportune for him to march quickly against Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , before the power of the Lydians could be assembled again.

This he decided, and this he did immediately; he marched his army into Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia and so came himself to bring the news of it to Croesus. All had turned out contrary to Croesus' expectation, and he was in a great quandary; nevertheless, he led out the Lydians to battle.

Now at this time there was no nation in Asia (continent) Asia more valiant or warlike than the Lydian. It was their custom to fight on horseback, carrying long spears, and they were skillful at managing horses.

So the armies met in the plain, wide and bare, that is before the city of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis : the Hyllus and other rivers flow across it and run violently together into the greatest of them, which is called Hermus (this flows from the mountain sacred to the Mother Dindymene and empties into the sea near the city of Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea ).

When Cyrus saw the Lydians maneuvering their battle-lines here, he was afraid of their cavalry, and therefore at the urging of one Harpagus, a Mede, he did as I shall describe. Assembling all the camels that followed his army bearing food and baggage, he took off their burdens and mounted men upon them equipped like cavalrymen; having equipped them, he ordered them to advance before his army against Croesus' cavalry; he directed the infantry to follow the camels, and placed all his cavalry behind the infantry.

When they were all in order, he commanded them to kill all the other Lydians who came in their way, and spare none, but not to kill Croesus himself, even if he should defend himself against capture.

Such was his command. The reason for his posting the camels to face the cavalry was this: horses fear camels and can endure neither the sight nor the smell of them; this then was the intention of his maneuver, that Croesus' cavalry, on which the Lydian relied to distinguish himself, might be of no use.

So when battle was joined, as soon as the horses smelled and saw the camels they turned to flight, and all Croesus' hope was lost.

Nevertheless the Lydians were no cowards; when they saw what was happening, they leaped from their horses and fought the Persians on foot. Many of both armies fell; at length the Lydians were routed and driven within their city wall, where they were besieged by the Persians.

So then they were besieged. But Croesus, supposing that the siege would last a long time, again sent messengers from the city to his allies; whereas the former envoys had been sent to summon them to muster at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis in five months' time, these were to announce that Croesus was besieged and to plead for help as quickly as possible.

So he sent to the Lacedaemonians as well as to the rest of the allies. Now at this very time the Spartans themselves were feuding with the Argives over the country called Thyrea;

for this was a part of the Argive territory which the Lacedaemonians had cut off and occupied. (All the land towards the west, as far as Malea, belonged then to the Argives, and not only the mainland, but the island of Cerigo (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Cythera and the other islands.)

The Argives came out to save their territory from being cut off, then after debate the two armies agreed that three hundred of each side should fight, and whichever party won would possess the land. The rest of each army was to go away to its own country and not be present at the battle, since, if the armies remained on the field, the men of either party might render assistance to their comrades if they saw them losing.

Having agreed, the armies drew off, and picked men of each side remained and fought. Neither could gain advantage in the battle; at last, only three out of the six hundred were left, Alcenor and Chromios of the Argives, Othryades of the Lacedaemonians: these three were left alive at nightfall.

Then the two Argives, believing themselves victors, ran to Argos [22.7333,37.6417] (Perseus) Argos ; but Othryades the Lacedaemonian, after stripping the Argive dead and taking the arms to his camp, waited at his position. On the second day both armies came to learn the issue.

For a while both claimed the victory, the Argives arguing that more of their men had survived, the Lacedaemonians showing that the Argives had fled, while their man had stood his ground and stripped the enemy dead.

At last from arguing they fell to fighting; many of both sides fell, but the Lacedaemonians gained the victory. The Argives, who before had worn their hair long by fixed custom, shaved their heads ever after and made a law, with a curse added to it, that no Argive grow his hair, and no Argive woman wear gold, until they recovered Thyreae;

and the Lacedaemonians made a contrary law, that they wear their hair long ever after; for until now they had not worn it so. Othryades, the lone survivor of the three hundred, was ashamed, it is said, to return to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta after all the men of his company had been killed, and killed himself on the spot at Thyreae.

The Sardian herald came after this had happened to the Spartans to ask for their help for Croesus, now besieged; nonetheless, when they heard the herald, they prepared to send help; but when they were already equipped and their ships ready, a second message came that the fortification of the Lydians was taken and Croesus a prisoner. Then, though very sorry indeed, they ceased their efforts.

This is how Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis was taken. When Croesus had been besieged for fourteen days, Cyrus sent horsemen around in his army to promise to reward whoever first mounted the wall.

After this the army made an assault, but with no success. Then, when all the others were stopped, a certain Mardian called Hyroeades attempted to mount by a part of the acropolis where no guard had been set, since no one feared that it could be taken by an attack made here.

For here the height on which the acropolis stood is sheer and unlikely to be assaulted; this was the only place where Meles the former king of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis had not carried the lion which his concubine had borne him, the Telmessians having declared that if this lion were carried around the walls, Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis could never be taken. Meles then carried the lion around the rest of the wall of the acropolis where it could be assaulted, but neglected this place, because the height was sheer and defied attack. It is on the side of the city which faces towards Tmolus.

The day before, then, Hyroeades, this Mardian, had seen one of the Lydians come down by this part of the acropolis after a helmet that had fallen down, and fetch it; he took note of this and considered it.

And now he climbed up himself, and other Persians after him. Many ascended, and thus Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis was taken and all the city sacked.

I will now relate what happened to Croesus himself. He had a son, whom I have already mentioned, fine in other respects, but mute. Now in his days of prosperity past Croesus had done all that he could for his son; and besides resorting to other devices he had sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to inquire of the oracle concerning him.

“Lydian, king of many, greatly foolish Croesus, Wish not to hear in the palace the voice often prayed for Of your son speaking. It were better for you that he remain mute as before; For on an unlucky day shall he first speak.”

So at the taking of the fortification a certain Persian, not knowing who Croesus was, came at him meaning to kill him. Croesus saw him coming, but because of the imminent disaster he was past caring, and it made no difference to him whether he were struck and killed.

But this mute son, when he saw the Persian coming on, in fear and distress broke into speech and cried, “Man, do not kill Croesus!” This was the first word he uttered, and after that for all the rest of his life he had power of speech.

The Persians gained Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and took Croesus prisoner. Croesus had ruled fourteen years and been besieged fourteen days. Fulfilling the oracle, he had destroyed his own great empire. The Persians took him and brought him to Cyrus,

who erected a pyre and mounted Croesus atop it, bound in chains, with twice seven sons of the Lydians beside him. Cyrus may have intended to sacrifice him as a victory-offering to some god, or he may have wished to fulfill a vow, or perhaps he had heard that Croesus was pious and put him atop the pyre to find out if some divinity would deliver him from being burned alive.

So Cyrus did this. As Croesus stood on the pyre, even though he was in such a wretched position it occurred to him that Solon had spoken with god's help when he had said that no one among the living is fortunate. When this occurred to him, he heaved a deep sigh and groaned aloud after long silence, calling out three times the name “Solon.”

Cyrus heard and ordered the interpreters to ask Croesus who he was invoking. They approached and asked, but Croesus kept quiet at their questioning, until finally they forced him and he said, “I would prefer to great wealth his coming into discourse with all despots.” Since what he said was unintelligible, they again asked what he had said,

persistently harassing him. He explained that first Solon the Athenian had come and seen all his fortune and spoken as if he despised it. Now everything had turned out for him as Solon had said, speaking no more of him than of every human being, especially those who think themselves fortunate. While Croesus was relating all this, the pyre had been lit and the edges were on fire.

When Cyrus heard from the interpreters what Croesus said, he relented and considered that he, a human being, was burning alive another human being, one his equal in good fortune. In addition, he feared retribution, reflecting how there is nothing stable in human affairs. He ordered that the blazing fire be extinguished as quickly as possible, and that Croesus and those with him be taken down, but despite their efforts they could not master the fire.

Then the Lydians say that Croesus understood Cyrus' change of heart, and when he saw everyone trying to extinguish the fire but unable to check it, he invoked Apollo, crying out that if Apollo had ever been given any pleasing gift by him, let him offer help and deliver him from the present evil.

Thus he in tears invoked the god, and suddenly out of a clear and windless sky clouds gathered, a storm broke, and it rained violently, extinguishing the pyre. Thus Cyrus perceived that Croesus was dear to god and a good man. He had him brought down from the pyre and asked,

“Croesus, what man persuaded you to wage war against my land and become my enemy instead of my friend?” He replied, “O King, I acted thus for your good fortune, but for my own ill fortune. The god of the Hellenes is responsible for these things, inciting me to wage war.

No one is so foolish as to choose war over peace. In peace sons bury their fathers, in war fathers bury their sons. But I suppose it was dear to the divinity that this be so.”

Croesus said this, and Cyrus freed him and made him sit near and was very considerate to him, and both he and all that were with him were astonished when they looked at Croesus. He for his part was silent, deep in thought.

Presently he turned and said (for he saw the Persians sacking the city of the Lydians), “O King, am I to say to you what is in my mind now, or keep silent?” When Cyrus urged him to speak up boldly, Croesus asked,

“The multitude there, what is it at which they are so busily engaged?” “They are plundering your city,” said Cyrus, “and carrying off your possessions.” “No,” Croesus answered, “not my city, and not my possessions; for I no longer have any share of all this; it is your wealth that they are pillaging.”

Cyrus thought about what Croesus had said and, telling the rest to withdraw, asked Croesus what fault he saw in what was being done. “Since the gods have made me your slave,” replied the Lydian, “it is right that if I have any further insight I should point it out to you.

The Persians being by nature violent men are poor; so if you let them seize and hold great possessions, you may expect that he who has got most will revolt against you. Therefore do this, if you like what I say.

Have men of your guard watch all the gates; let them take the spoil from those who are carrying it out, and say that it must be paid as a tithe to Zeus. Thus you shall not be hated by them for taking their wealth by force, and they, recognizing that you act justly, will give up the spoil willingly.”

When Cyrus heard this, he was exceedingly pleased, for he believed the advice good; and praising him greatly, and telling his guard to act as Croesus had advised, he said: “Croesus, now that you, a king, are determined to act and to speak with integrity, ask me directly for whatever favor you like.”

“Master,” said Croesus, “you will most gratify me if you will let me send these chains of mine to that god of the Greeks whom I especially honored and to ask him if it is his way to deceive those who serve him well.” When Cyrus asked him what grudge against the god led him to make this request,

Croesus repeated to him the story of all his own aspirations, and the answers of the oracles, and more particularly his offerings, and how the oracle had encouraged him to attack the Persians; and so saying he once more insistently pled that he be allowed to reproach the god for this. At this Cyrus smiled, and replied, “This I will grant you, Croesus, and whatever other favor you may ever ask me.”

When Croesus heard this, he sent Lydians to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , telling them to lay his chains on the doorstep of the temple, and to ask the god if he were not ashamed to have persuaded Croesus to attack the Persians, telling him that he would destroy Cyrus' power; of which power (they were to say, showing the chains) these were the first-fruits. They should ask this; and further, if it were the way of the Greek gods to be ungrateful.

When the Lydians came, and spoke as they had been instructed, the priestess (it is said) made the following reply. “No one may escape his lot, not even a god. Croesus has paid for the sin of his ancestor of the fifth generation before, who was led by the guile of a woman to kill his master, though he was one of the guard of the Heraclidae, and who took to himself the royal state of that master, to which he had no right.

And it was the wish of Loxias that the evil lot of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis fall in the lifetime of Croesus' sons, not in his own; but he could not deflect the Fates.

Yet as far as they gave in, he did accomplish his wish and favor Croesus: for he delayed the taking of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis for three years. And let Croesus know this: that although he is now taken, it is by so many years later than the destined hour. And further, Loxias saved Croesus from burning.

But as to the oracle that was given to him, Croesus is wrong to complain concerning it. For Loxias declared to him that if he led an army against the Persians, he would destroy a great empire. Therefore he ought, if he had wanted to plan well, to have sent and asked whether the god spoke of Croesus' or of Cyrus' empire. But he did not understood what was spoken, or make further inquiry: for which now let him blame himself.

When he asked that last question of the oracle and Loxias gave him that answer concerning the mule, even that Croesus did not understand. For that mule was in fact Cyrus, who was the son of two parents not of the same people, of whom the mother was better and the father inferior:

for she was a Mede and the daughter of Astyages king of the Medes; but he was a Persian and a subject of the Medes and although in all respects her inferior he married this lady of his.” This was the answer of the priestess to the Lydians. They carried it to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis and told Croesus, and when he heard it, he confessed that the sin was not the god's, but his. And this is the story of Croesus' rule, and of the first overthrow of Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia .

There are many offerings of Croesus' in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , and not only those of which I have spoken. There is a golden tripod at Thebes [23.3333,38.325] (Perseus) Thebes in Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia , which he dedicated to Apollo of Ismenus; at Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Ephesus there are the oxen of gold and the greater part of the pillars; and in the temple of Proneia at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , a golden shield. All these survived to my lifetime; but other of the offerings were destroyed.

And the offerings of Croesus at Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Branchidae of the Milesians, as I learn by inquiry, are equal in weight and like those at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi . Those which he dedicated at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi and the shrine of Amphiaraus were his own, the first-fruits of the wealth inherited from his father; the rest came from the estate of an enemy who had headed a faction against Croesus before he became king, and conspired to win the throne of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia for Pantaleon.

This Pantaleon was a son of Alyattes, and half-brother of Croesus: Croesus was Alyattes' son by a Carian and Pantaleon by an Ionian mother.

So when Croesus gained the sovereignty by his father's gift, he put the man who had conspired against him to death by drawing him across a carding-comb, and first confiscated his estate, then dedicated it as and where I have said. This is all that I shall say of Croesus' offerings.

There are not many marvellous things in Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia to record, in comparison with other countries, except the gold dust that comes down from Tmolus.

But there is one building to be seen there which is much the greatest of all, except those of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon . In Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia is the tomb of Alyattes, the father of Croesus, the base of which is made of great stones and the rest of it of mounded earth. It was built by the men of the market and the craftsmen and the prostitutes.

There survived until my time five corner-stones set on the top of the tomb, and in these was cut the record of the work done by each group: and measurement showed that the prostitutes' share of the work was the greatest.

All the daughters of the common people of Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia ply the trade of prostitutes, to collect dowries, until they can get themselves husbands; and they themselves offer themselves in marriage.

Now this tomb has a circumference of thirteen hundred and ninety yards, and its breadth is above four hundred and forty yards; and there is a great lake hard by the tomb, which, the Lydians say, is fed by ever-flowing springs; it is called the Gygaean lake. Such then is this tomb.

The customs of the Lydians are like those of the Greeks, except that they make prostitutes of their female children. They were the first men whom we know who coined and used gold and silver currency; and they were the first to sell by retail.

And, according to what they themselves say, the games now in use among them and the Greeks were invented by the Lydians: these, they say, were invented among them at the time when they colonized Etruria (region (general)), Italy, EuropeTyrrhenia. This is their story:

In the reign of Atys son of Manes there was great scarcity of food in all Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia . For a while the Lydians bore this with what patience they could; presently, when the famine did not abate, they looked for remedies, and different plans were devised by different men. Then it was that they invented the games of dice and knuckle-bones and ball and all other forms of game except dice, which the Lydians do not claim to have discovered.

Then, using their discovery to lighten the famine, every other day they would play for the whole day, so that they would not have to look for food, and the next day they quit their play and ate. This was their way of life for eighteen years.

But the famine did not cease to trouble them, and instead afflicted them even more. At last their king divided the people into two groups, and made them draw lots, so that the one group should remain and the other leave the country; he himself was to be the head of those who drew the lot to remain there, and his son, whose name was Tyrrhenus, of those who departed.

Then the one group, having drawn the lot, left the country and came down to Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) Smyrna and built ships, in which they loaded all their goods that could be transported aboard ship, and sailed away to seek a livelihood and a country; until at last, after sojourning with one people after another, they came to the Ombrici, where they founded cities and have lived ever since.

They no longer called themselves Lydians, but Tyrrhenians, after the name of the king's son who had led them there.The Lydians, then, were enslaved by the Persians.

But the next business of my history is to inquire who this Cyrus was who took down the power of Croesus, and how the Persians came to be the rulers of Asia (continent) Asia . I mean then to be guided in what I write by some of the Persians who desire not to magnify the story of Cyrus but to tell the truth, though there are no less than three other accounts of Cyrus which I could give.

After the Assyrians had ruled Upper Asia (continent) Asia for five hundred and twenty years, the Medes were the first who began to revolt from them. These, it would seem, proved their bravery in fighting for freedom against the Assyrians; they cast off their slavery and won freedom. Afterwards, the other subject nations, too, did the same as the Medes.

All of those on the mainland were now free men; but they came to be ruled by monarchs again, as I will now relate. There was among the Medes a clever man called Deioces: he was the son of Phraortes.

Deioces was infatuated with sovereignty, and so he set about gaining it. Already a notable man in his own town (one of the many towns into which Media was divided), he began to profess and practice justice more constantly and zealously than ever, and he did this even though there was much lawlessness throughout the land of Media, and though he knew that injustice is always the enemy of justice. Then the Medes of the same town, seeing his behavior, chose him to be their judge, and he (for he coveted sovereign power) was honest and just.

By acting so, he won no small praise from his fellow townsmen, to such an extent that when the men of the other towns learned that Deioces alone gave fair judgments (having before suffered from unjust decisions), they came often and gladly to plead before Deioces; and at last they would submit to no arbitration but his.

The number of those who came grew ever greater, for they heard that each case turned out in accord with the truth. Then Deioces, seeing that everything now depended on him, would not sit in his former seat of judgment, and said he would give no more decisions; for it was of no advantage to him (he said) to leave his own business and spend all day judging the cases of his neighbors.

This caused robbery and lawlessness to increase greatly in the towns; and, gathering together, the Medes conferred about their present affairs, and said (here, as I suppose, the main speakers were Deioces' friends),

“Since we cannot go on living in the present way in the land, come, let us set up a king over us; in this way the land will be well governed, and we ourselves shall attend to our business and not be routed by lawlessness.” With such words they persuaded themselves to be ruled by a king.

The question was at once propounded: Whom should they make king? Then every man was loud in putting Deioces forward and praising Deioces, until they agreed that he should be their king.

He ordered them to build him houses worthy of his royal power, and strengthen him with a bodyguard. The Medes did so. They built him a big and strong house wherever in the land he indicated to them, and let him choose a bodyguard out of all the Medes.

And having obtained power, he forced the Medes to build him one city and to fortify and care for this more strongly than all the rest. The Medes did this for him, too. So he built the big and strong walls, one standing inside the next in circles, which are now called Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana .

This fortress is so designed that each circle of walls is higher than the next outer circle by no more than the height of its battlements; to which plan the site itself, on a hill in the plain, contributes somewhat, but chiefly it was accomplished by skill.

There are seven circles in all; within the innermost circle are the palace and the treasuries; and the longest wall is about the length of the wall that surrounds the city of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens . The battlements of the first circle are white, of the second black, of the third circle purple, of the fourth blue, and of the fifth orange:

thus the battlements of five circles are painted with colors; and the battlements of the last two circles are coated, the one with silver and the other with gold.

Deioces built these walls for himself and around his own quarters, and he ordered the people to dwell outside the wall. And when it was all built, Deioces was first to establish the rule that no one should come into the presence of the king, but everything should be done by means of messengers; that the king should be seen by no one; and moreover that it should be a disgrace for anyone to laugh or to spit in his presence.

He was careful to hedge himself with all this so that the men of his own age (who had been brought up with him and were as nobly born as he and his equals in courage), instead of seeing him and being upset and perhaps moved to plot against him, might by reason of not seeing him believe him to be different.

When he had made these arrangements and strengthened himself with sovereign power, he was a hard man in the protection of justice. They would write down their pleas and send them in to him; then he would pass judgment on what was brought to him and send his decisions out.

This was his manner of deciding cases at law, and he had other arrangements too; for when he heard that a man was doing violence he would send for him and punish him as each offense deserved: and he had spies and eavesdroppers everywhere in his domain.

Deioces, then, united the Median nation by itself and ruled it. The Median tribes are these: the Busae, the Paretaceni, the Struchates, the Arizanti, the Budii, the Magi. Their tribes are this many.

Deioces had a son, Phraortes, who inherited the throne when Deioces died after a reign of fifty-three years. Having inherited it, he was not content to rule the Medes alone: marching against the Persians, he attacked them first, and they were the first whom he made subject to the Medes.

Then, with these two strong nations at his back, he subjugated one nation of Asia (continent) Asia after another, until he marched against the Assyrians; that is, against those of the Assyrians who held Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus . These had formerly been rulers of all; but now their allies had deserted them and they were left alone, though well-off themselves. Marching against these Assyrians, then, Phraortes and most of his army perished, after he had reigned twenty-two years.

At his death he was succeeded by his son Cyaxares. He is said to have been a much greater soldier than his ancestors: it was he who first organized the men of Asia (continent) Asia in companies and posted each arm apart, the spearmen and archers and cavalry: before this they were all mingled together in confusion.

This was the king who fought against the Lydians when the day was turned to night in the battle, and who united under his dominion all of Asia (continent) Asia that is beyond the river Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys . Collecting all his subjects, he marched against Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus , wanting to avenge his father and to destroy the city.

He defeated the Assyrians in battle; but while he was besieging their city, a great army of Scythians came down upon him, led by their king Madyes son of Protothyes. They had invaded Asia (continent) Asia after they had driven the Cimmerians out of Europe (continent) Europe : pursuing them in their flight, the Scythians came to the Median country.

It is a thirty days' journey for an unencumbered man from the Maeetian lake to the river Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited place), regions under republican jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia Phasis and the land of the Colchi; from the Colchi it is an easy matter to cross into Media: there is only one nation between, the Saspires; to pass these is to be in Media.

Nevertheless, it was not by this way that the Scythians entered; they turned aside and came by the upper and much longer way, keeping the Caucasian mountains on their right. There, the Medes met the Scythians, who defeated them in battle, deprived them of their rule, and made themselves masters of all Asia (continent) Asia .

From there they marched against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt : and when they were in the part of Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria called Palestine [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia Palestine , Psammetichus king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt met them and persuaded them with gifts and prayers to come no further.

So they turned back, and when they came on their way to the city of Tel Ashqelon [34.55,31.666] (deserted settlement), Mehoz HaDarom, Israel, Asia Ascalon in Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria , most of the Scythians passed by and did no harm, but a few remained behind and plundered the temple of Heavenly Aphrodite.

This temple, I discover from making inquiry, is the oldest of all the temples of the goddess, for the temple in Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus was founded from it, as the Cyprians themselves say; and the temple on Cerigo (island), Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Cythera was founded by Phoenicians from this same land of Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria .

But the Scythians who pillaged the temple, and all their descendants after them, were afflicted by the goddess with the “female” sickness: and so the Scythians say that they are afflicted as a consequence of this and also that those who visit Scythian territory see among them the condition of those whom the Scythians call “Hermaphrodites”.

The Scythians, then, ruled Asia (continent) Asia for twenty-eight years: and the whole land was ruined because of their violence and their pride, for, besides exacting from each the tribute which was assessed, they rode about the land carrying off everyone's possessions.

Most of them were entertained and made drunk and then slain by Cyaxares and the Medes: so thus the Medes took back their empire and all that they had formerly possessed; and they took Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus (how, I will describe in a later part of my history), and brought all Assyria except the province of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon under their rule.

Afterwards, Cyaxares died after a reign of forty years (among which I count the years of the Scythian domination) and his son Astyages inherited the sovereignty. Astyages had a daughter, whom he called Mandane: he dreamed that she urinated so much that she filled his city and flooded all of Asia (continent) Asia . He communicated this vision to those of the Magi who interpreted dreams, and when he heard what they told him he was terrified;

and presently, when Mandane was of marriageable age, he feared the vision too much to give her to any Mede worthy to marry into his family, but married her to a Persian called Cambyses, a man whom he knew to be wellborn and of a quiet temper: for Astyages held Cambyses to be much lower than a Mede of middle rank.

But during the first year that Mandane was married to Cambyses, Astyages saw a second vision. He dreamed that a vine grew out of the genitals of this daughter, and that the vine covered the whole of Asia (continent) Asia .

Having seen this vision, and communicated it to the interpreters of dreams, he sent to the Persians for his daughter, who was about to give birth, and when she arrived kept her guarded, meaning to kill whatever child she bore: for the interpreters declared that the meaning of his dream was that his daughter's offspring would rule in his place.

Anxious to prevent this, Astyages, when Cyrus was born, summoned Harpagus, a man of his household who was his most faithful servant among the Medes and was administrator of all that was his, and he said:

“Harpagus, whatever business I turn over to you, do not mishandle it, and do not leave me out of account and, giving others preference, trip over your own feet afterwards. Take the child that Mandane bore, and carry him to your house, and kill him; and then bury him however you like.”

“O King,” Harpagus answered, “never yet have you noticed anything displeasing in your man; and I shall be careful in the future, too, not to err in what concerns you. If it is your will that this be done, then my concern ought to be to attend to it scrupulously.”

Harpagus answered thus. The child was then given to him, consigned to its death, and he went to his house weeping. When he came in, he told his wife the entire speech uttered by Astyages.

“Now, then,” she said to him, “what do you propose to do?” “Not to obey Astyages' instructions,” he answered, “not even if he should lose his mind and be more frantic than he is now: I will not lend myself to his plan or be an accessory to such a murder.

There are many reasons why I will not kill him: because the child is related to me, and because Astyages is old and has no male children.

Now if the sovereignty passes to this daughter of his after his death, whose son he is now killing by means of me, what is left for me but the gravest of all dangers? For the sake of my safety this child has to die; but one of Astyages' own people has to be the murderer and not one of mine.”

So saying, he sent a messenger at once to one of Astyages' cowherds, who he knew pastured his herds in the likeliest spots and where the mountains were most infested with wild beasts. The man's name was Mitradates, and his wife was a slave like him; her name was in the Greek language Cyno, in the Median Spako: for “spax” is the Median word for dog.

The foothills of the mountains where this cowherd pastured his cattle are north of Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana , towards the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine sea ; for the rest of Media is everywhere a level plain, but here, on the side of the Saspires, the land is very high and mountainous and covered with woods.

So when the cowherd came in haste at the summons, Harpagus said: “Astyages wants you to take this child and leave it in the most desolate part of the mountains so that it will perish as quickly as possible. And he wants me to tell you that if you do not kill it, but preserve it somehow, you will undergo the most harrowing death; and I am ordered to see it exposed.”

Hearing this, the cowherd took the child and went back the same way and came to his dwelling. Now as it happened his wife too had been on the verge of delivering every day, and as the divinity would have it, she did in fact give birth while the cowherd was away in the city. Each of them was anxious for the other, the husband being afraid about his wife's labor, and the wife because she did not know why Harpagus had so unexpectedly sent for her husband.

So when he returned and stood before her, she was startled by the unexpected sight and asked him before he could speak why Harpagus had so insistently summoned him. “Wife,” he said, “when I came to the city, I saw and heard what I ought never to have seen, and what ought never to have happened to our masters. Harpagus' whole house was full of weeping; astonished, I went in;

and immediately I saw a child lying there struggling and crying, adorned in gold and embroidered clothing. And when Harpagus saw me, he told me to take the child in haste and bring it away and leave it where the mountains are the most infested with wild beasts. It was Astyages, he said, who enjoined this on me, and Harpagus threatened me grievously if I did not do it.

So I took him and brought him away, supposing him to be the child of one of the servants; for I could never have guessed whose he was. But I was amazed at seeing him adorned with gold and clothing, and at hearing, too, the evident sound of weeping in the house of Harpagus.

Very soon on the way I learned the whole story from the servant who brought me out of the city and gave the child into my custody: namely, that it was the son of Mandane the king's daughter and Cambyses the son of Cyrus, and that Astyages gave the command to kill him. And now, here he is.”

And as he said this the cowherd uncovered it and showed it. But when the woman saw how fine and fair the child was, she began to cry and laid hold of the man's knees and begged him by no means to expose him. But the husband said he could not do otherwise; for, he said, spies would be coming from Harpagus to see what was done, and he would have to die a terrible death if he did not obey.

Being unable to move her husband, the woman then said: “Since I cannot convince you not to expose it, then, if a child has to be seen exposed, do this: I too have borne a child, but I bore it dead.

Take this one and put it out, but the child of the daughter of Astyages let us raise as if it were our own; this way, you won't be caught disobeying our masters, and we will not have plotted badly. For the dead child will have royal burial, and the living will not lose his life.”

Thinking that his wife advised him excellently in his present strait, the cowherd immediately did as she said. He gave his wife the child whom he had brought to kill, and his own dead child he put into the chest in which he carried the other,

and dressed it with all the other child's finery and left it out in the most desolate part of the mountains. Then on the third day after leaving the child out, the cowherd left one of his herdsmen to watch it and went to the city, where he went to Harpagus' house and said he was ready to show the child's dead body.

Harpagus sent the most trusted of his bodyguard, and these saw for him and buried the cowherd's child. So it was buried: and the cowherd's wife kept and raised the boy who was afterwards named Cyrus; but she did not give him that name, but another.

Now when the boy was ten years old, the truth about him was revealed in some such way as this. He was playing in the village where these herdsmen's quarters were, playing in the road with others of his age. The boys while playing chose to be their king this one who was supposed to be the son of the cowherd.

Then he assigned some of them to the building of houses, some to be his bodyguard, one doubtless to be the King's Eye; to another he gave the right of bringing him messages; to each he gave his proper work.

Now one of these boys playing with him was the son of Artembares, a notable Mede; when he did not perform his assignment from Cyrus, Cyrus told the other boys to seize him, and when they did so he handled the boy very roughly and whipped him.

As soon as he was let go, very upset about the indignity he had suffered, he went down to his father in the city and complained of what he had received at the hands of the son of Astyages' cowherd—not calling him Cyrus, for that name had not yet been given.

Artembares, going just as angry as he was to Astyages and bringing his son along, announced that an impropriety had been committed, saying, “O King, by your slave, the son of a cowherd, we have been outraged thus”: and with that he bared his son's shoulders.

When Astyages heard and saw, he was ready to avenge the boy in view of Artembares' rank: so he sent for the cowherd and his son. When they were both present, Astyages said, fixing his eyes on Cyrus,

“Is it you, then, the child of one such as this, who have dared to lay hands on the son of the greatest of my courtiers?” Cyrus answered, “Master, what I did to him I did with justice. The boys of the village, of whom he was one, chose me while playing to be their king, for they thought me the most fit for this.

The other boys then did as assigned: but this one was disobedient and cared nothing for me, for which he got what he deserved. Now, if I deserve punishment for this, here I am to take it.”

While the boy spoke, it seemed to Astyages that he recognized him; the character of his face was like his own, he thought, and his manner of answering was freer than customary: and the date of the exposure seemed to agree with the boy's age.

Astonished at this, he sat a while silent; but when at last with difficulty he could collect his wits, he said (for he wanted to be rid of Artembares and question the cowherd with no one present), “I shall act in such a way, Artembares, that you and your son shall have no cause of complaint.”

So he sent Artembares away, and the attendants led Cyrus inside at Astyages' bidding. When the cowherd was left quite alone, Astyages asked him where he had got the boy and who had been the giver.

The cowherd answered that Cyrus was his own son and that the mother was still with him. Astyages said that he was not well advised if he wished to find himself in a desperate situation, and as he said this made a sign to the spearbearers to seize him.

Then, under stress of necessity, the cowherd disclosed to him the whole story, telling everything exactly as it had happened from the beginning, and at the end fell to entreaty and urged the king to pardon him.

When the cowherd had disclosed the true story, Astyages took less interest in him, but he was very angry with Harpagus and had the guards summon him.

Harpagus came, and Astyages asked him “Harpagus, how did you kill the boy, my daughter's son, whom I gave you?” Harpagus, when he saw the cowherd was there, did not take the way of falsehood, lest he be caught and confuted:

“O King,” he said,” when I took the boy, I thought and considered how to do what you wanted and not be held a murderer by your daughter or by you even though I was blameless toward you.

So I did this: I summoned this cowherd here, and gave the child to him, telling him that it was you who gave the command to kill it. And that was the truth; for such was your command. But I gave the child with the instructions that the cowherd was to lay it on a desolate mountainside and wait there and watch until it was dead; and I threatened all sorts of things if he did not accomplish this.

Then, when he had done what he was told, and the child was dead, I sent the most trusted of my eunuchs and had the body viewed and buried. This, O king, is the story, and such was the end of the boy.”

Harpagus told the story straight, while Astyages, hiding the anger that he felt against him for what had been done, first repeated the story again to Harpagus exactly as he had heard it from the cowherd, then, after repeating it, ended by saying that the boy was alive and that the matter had turned out well.

“For,” he said, “I was greatly afflicted by what had been done to this boy, and it weighed heavily on me that I was estranged from my daughter. Now, then, in this good turn of fortune, send your own son to this boy newly come, and (since I am about to sacrifice for the boy's safety to the gods to whom this honor is due) come here to dine with me.”

When Harpagus heard this, he bowed and went to his home, very pleased to find that his offense had turned out for the best and that he was invited to dinner in honor of this fortunate day.

Coming in, he told his only son, a boy of about thirteen years of age, to go to Astyages' palace and do whatever the king commanded, and in his great joy he told his wife everything that had happened.

But when Harpagus' son came, Astyages cut his throat and tore him limb from limb, roasted some of the flesh and boiled some, and kept it ready after he had prepared it.

So when the hour for dinner came and the rest of the guests and Harpagus were present, Astyages and the others were served dishes of lamb's meat, but Harpagus that of his own son, all but the head and hands and feet, which lay apart covered up in a wicker basket.

And when Harpagus seemed to have eaten his fill, Astyages asked him, “Did you like your meal, Harpagus?” “Exceedingly,” Harpagus answered. Then those whose job it was brought him the head of his son and hands and feet concealed in the basket, and they stood before Harpagus and told him to open and take what he liked.

Harpagus did; he opened and saw what was left of his son: he saw this, but mastered himself and did not lose his composure. Astyages asked him, “Do you know what beast's meat you have eaten?”

“I know,” he said, “and all that the king does is pleasing.” With that answer he took the remains of the meat and went home. There he meant, I suppose, after collecting everything, to bury it.

Thus Astyages punished Harpagus. But, to help him to decide about Cyrus, he summoned the same Magi who had interpreted his dream as I have said: and when they came, Astyages asked them how they had interpreted his dream. They answered as before, and said that the boy must have been made king had he lived and not died first.

Then Astyages said, “The boy is safe and alive, and when he was living in the country the boys of his village made him king, and he duly did all that is done by true kings: for he assigned to each individually the roles of bodyguards and sentinels and messengers and everything else, and so ruled. And what do you think is the significance of this?”

“If the boy is alive,” said the Magi, “and has been made king without premeditation, then be confident on this score and keep an untroubled heart: he will not be made king a second time. Even in our prophecies, it is often but a small thing that has been foretold and the consequences of dreams come to nothing in the end.”

“I too, Magi,” said Astyages, “am very much of your opinion: that the dream came true when the boy was called king, and that I have no more to fear from him. Nevertheless consider well and advise me what will be safest both for my house and for you.”

The Magi said, “O King, we too are very anxious that your sovereignty prosper: for otherwise, it passes from your nation to this boy who is a Persian, and so we Medes are enslaved and held of no account by the Persians, as we are of another blood, but while you, our countryman, are established king, we have our share of power, and great honor is shown us by you.

Thus, then, we ought by all means to watch out for you and for your sovereignty. And if at the present time we saw any danger we would declare everything to you: but now the dream has had a trifling conclusion, and we ourselves are confident and advise you to be so also. As for this boy, send him out of your sight to the Persians and to his parents.”

Hearing this, Astyages was glad, and calling Cyrus, said, “My boy, I did you wrong because of a vision I had in a dream, that meant nothing, but by your own destiny you still live; now therefore, go to the Persians, and good luck go with you; I will send guides with you. When you get there you will find a father and mother unlike the cowherd, Mitradates, and his wife.”

After saying this, Astyages sent Cyrus away. When he returned to Cambyses' house, his parents received him there, and learning who he was they welcomed him enthusiastically, for they had supposed that long ago he had been killed, and they asked him how his life had been saved.

Then he told them, and said that until now he had known nothing but been very deceived, but that on the way he had heard the whole story of his misfortune; for he had thought, he said, that Astyages' cowherd was his father, but in his journey from the city his escort had told him the whole story.

And he had been raised, he said, by the cowherd's wife, and he was full of her praises, and in his tale he was constantly speaking of Cyno. Hearing this name, his parents circulated a story that Cyrus was suckled by a dog when exposed, thinking in this way to make the story of his salvation seem more marvellous to the Persians.

This then was the beginning of that legend. But as Cyrus grew up to be the manliest and best loved of his peers, Harpagus courted him and sent him gifts, wishing to be avenged on Astyages; for he saw no hope for a private man like himself of punishing Astyages, but as he saw Cyrus growing up, he tried to make him an ally, for he likened Cyrus' misfortune to his own.

Even before this the following had been done by him: since Astyages was harsh toward the Medes, he associated with each of the chief Medes and persuaded them to make Cyrus their leader and depose Astyages.

So much being ready and done, Harpagus wanted to reveal his intent to Cyrus, who then lived among the Persians. But the roads were guarded, and he had no plan for sending a message but this:

he carefully slit the belly of a hare, and then leaving it as it was without further harm he put into it a paper on which he wrote what he thought best. Then he sewed up the hare's belly, and sent it to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia by the most trusted of his servants, giving him nets to carry as if he were a huntsman. The messenger was instructed to give Cyrus the hare and tell him by word of mouth to cut it open with his own hands, with no one else present.

All this was done. Cyrus took the hare and slit it and read the paper which was in it; the writing was as follows: “Son of Cambyses, since the gods watch over you (otherwise you would not have prospered so) avenge yourself now on Astyages, your murderer;

for thanks to his intention you are dead, while thanks to the gods, and me, you live. I expect that long ago you heard the story of what was done concerning you and how Astyages treated me because I did not kill you but gave you to the cowherd. If, then, you will listen to me, you shall rule all the country which is now ruled by Astyages. Persuade the Persians to rebel, and lead their army against the Medes;

then you have your wish, whether I am appointed to command the army against you or some other notable man among the Medes: for they will of themselves revolt from Astyages and join you and try to pull him down. Seeing then that all is ready here, do as I say and do it quickly.”

When Cyrus read this, he deliberated as to what was the shrewdest way to persuade the Persians to revolt; and what he thought to be most effective, he did:

writing what he liked on a paper, he assembled the Persians, and then unfolded the paper and declared that in it Astyages appointed him leader of the Persian armies. “Now,” he said in his speech, “I command you, men of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , to come, each provided with a sickle.” This is what Cyrus said.

Now there are many tribes in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia : those of them that Cyrus assembled and persuaded to revolt from the Medes were the Pasargadae, the Maraphii, and the Maspii. On these all the other Persians depend. The chief tribe is that of the Pasargadae; to them belongs the clan of the Achaemenidae, the royal house of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia .

The other Persian tribes are the Panthialaei, the Derusiaei, and the Germanii, all tillers of the soil, and the Dai, the Mardi, the Dropici, the Sagartii, all wandering herdsmen.

So when they all came with sickles as ordered, Cyrus commanded them to reclaim in one day a thorny tract of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , of two and one quarter or two and one half miles each way in extent.

The Persians accomplished the task appointed; Cyrus then commanded them to wash themselves and come the next day; meanwhile, collecting his father's goats and sheep and oxen in one place, he slaughtered and prepared them as a feast for the Persian host, providing also wine and all the foods that were most suitable.

When the Persians came on the next day he had them sit and feast in a meadow. After dinner he asked them which they liked more: their task of yesterday or their present pastime.

They answered that the difference was great: all yesterday they had had nothing but evil, to-day nothing but good. Then, taking up their word, Cyrus laid bare his whole purpose, and said:

“This is your situation, men of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia : obey me and you shall have these good things and ten thousand others besides with no toil and slavery; but if you will not obey me, you will have labors unnumbered like your toil of yesterday.

Now, then, do as I tell you, and win your freedom. For I think that I myself was born by a divine chance to undertake this work; and I hold you fully as good men as the Medes in war and in everything else. All this is true; therefore revolt from Astyages quickly now!”

The Persians had long been discontent that the Medes ruled them, and now having got a champion they were glad to win their freedom. But when Astyages heard that Cyrus was about this business, he sent a messenger to summon him;

Cyrus told the messenger to take back word that Astyages would see him sooner than he liked. Hearing this, Astyages armed all his Medes, and was distracted by Providence so that he forgot what he had done to Harpagus, and appointed him to command the army.

So when the Medes marched out and engaged with the Persians, those who were not in on the plan fought, while others deserted to the enemy, and most were deliberate cowards and ran.

Thus the Median army was shamefully scattered. As soon as Astyages heard, he sent a threatening message to Cyrus: “Nevertheless, Cyrus shall not rejoice”;

and with that he took the Magi who interpreted dreams, who had persuaded him to let Cyrus go free, and impaled them; then he armed the Medes who were left in the city, the very young and very old men.

Leading these out, and engaging the Persians, he was beaten: Astyages himself was taken prisoner, and lost the Median army which he led.

When Astyages was a captive, Harpagus came and exulted over him and taunted him, and besides much other bitter mockery he recalled his banquet, when Astyages had fed Harpagus his son's flesh, and asked Astyages what it was like to be a slave after having been a king.

Fixing his gaze on Harpagus, Astyages asked, “Do you imagine that this, which Cyrus has done, is your work?” “It was I,” said the other, “who wrote the letter; the accomplishment of the work is rightly mine.”

“Then,” said Astyages, “you stand confessed the most foolish and most unjust man on earth; most foolish, in giving another the throne which you might have had for yourself, if the present business is indeed your doing; most unjust, in enslaving the Medes because of that banquet.

For if in any event another and not you had to possess the royal power, then in justice some Mede should have had it, not a Persian: but now you have made the Medes, who did you no harm, slaves instead of masters and the Persians, who were the slaves, are now the masters of the Medes.”

Thus Astyages was deposed from his sovereignty after a reign of thirty-five years: and the Medes had to bow down before the Persians because of Astyages' cruelty. They had ruled all Asia (continent) Asia beyond the Halys River (river), Turkey, Asia Halys for one hundred and twenty-eight years, from which must be subtracted the time when the Scythians held sway.

At a later time they repented of what they now did, and rebelled against Darius ; but they were defeated in battle and brought back into subjection. But now, in Astyages' time, Cyrus and the Persians rose in revolt against the Medes, and from this time ruled Asia (continent) Asia .

As for Astyages, Cyrus did him no further harm, and kept him in his own house until Astyages died.This is the story of the birth and upbringing of Cyrus, and of how he became king; and afterwards, as I have already related, he subjugated Croesus in punishment for the unprovoked wrong done him; and after this victory he became sovereign of all Asia (continent) Asia .

As to the customs of the Persians, I know them to be these. It is not their custom to make and set up statues and temples and altars, but those who do such things they think foolish, because, I suppose, they have never believed the gods to be like men, as the Greeks do;

but they call the whole circuit of heaven Zeus, and to him they sacrifice on the highest peaks of the mountains; they sacrifice also to the sun and moon and earth and fire and water and winds.

From the beginning, these are the only gods to whom they have ever sacrificed; they learned later to sacrifice to the “heavenly” Aphrodite from the Assyrians and Arabians. She is called by the Assyrians Mylitta, by the Arabians Alilat, by the Persians Mitra.

And this is their method of sacrifice to the aforesaid gods: when about to sacrifice, they do not build altars or kindle fire, employ libations, or music, or fillets, or barley meal: when a man wishes to sacrifice to one of the gods, he leads a beast to an open space and then, wearing a wreath on his tiara, of myrtle usually, calls on the god.

To pray for blessings for himself alone is not lawful for the sacrificer; rather, he prays that the king and all the Persians be well; for he reckons himself among them. He then cuts the victim limb from limb into portions, and, after boiling the flesh, spreads the softest grass, trefoil usually, and places all of it on this.

When he has so arranged it, a Magus comes near and chants over it the song of the birth of the gods, as the Persian tradition relates it; for no sacrifice can be offered without a Magus. Then after a little while the sacrificer carries away the flesh and uses it as he pleases.

The day which every man values most is his own birthday. On this day, he thinks it right to serve a more abundant meal than on other days: oxen or horses or camels or asses, roasted whole in ovens, are set before the rich; the poorer serve the lesser kinds of cattle.

Their courses are few, the dainties that follow many, and not all served together. This is why the Persians say of Greeks that they rise from table still hungry, because not much dessert is set before them: were this too given to Greeks (the Persians say) they would never stop eating.

They are very partial to wine. No one may vomit or urinate in another's presence: this is prohibited among them. Moreover, it is their custom to deliberate about the gravest matters when they are drunk;

and what they approve in their deliberations is proposed to them the next day, when they are sober, by the master of the house where they deliberate; and if, being sober, they still approve it, they act on it, but if not, they drop it. And if they have deliberated about a matter when sober, they decide upon it when they are drunk.

When one man meets another on the road, it is easy to see if the two are equals; for, if they are, they kiss each other on the lips without speaking; if the difference in rank is small, the cheek is kissed; if it is great, the humbler bows and does obeisance to the other.

They honor most of all those who live nearest them, next those who are next nearest, and so going ever onwards they assign honor by this rule: those who dwell farthest off they hold least honorable of all; for they think that they are themselves in all regards by far the best of all men, that the rest have only a proportionate claim to merit, until those who live farthest away have least merit of all.

Under the rule of the Medes, one tribe would even govern another; the Medes held sway over all alike and especially over those who lived nearest to them; these ruled their neighbors, and the neighbors in turn those who came next to them, on the same scheme by which the Persians assign honor; for the nation kept advancing its rule and dominion.

But the Persians more than all men welcome foreign customs. They wear the Median dress, thinking it more beautiful than their own, and the Egyptian cuirass in war. Their luxurious practices are of all kinds, and all borrowed: the Greeks taught them pederasty. Every Persian marries many lawful wives, and keeps still more concubines.

After valor in battle it is accounted noble to father the greatest number of sons: the king sends gifts yearly to him who gets most. Strength, they believe, is in numbers.

They educate their boys from five to twenty years old, and teach them only three things: riding and archery and honesty. A boy is not seen by his father before he is five years old, but lives with the women: the point of this is that, if the boy should die in the interval of his rearing, the father would suffer no grief.

This is a law which I praise; and it is a praiseworthy law, too, which does not allow the king himself to slay any one for a single offense, or any other Persian to do incurable harm to one of his servants for one offense. Not until an accounting shows that the offender's wrongful acts are more and greater than his services may a man give rein to his anger.

They say that no one has ever yet killed his father or mother; when such a thing has been done, it always turns out on inquest that the doer is shown to be a changeling or the fruit of adultery; for it is not to be believed (say they) that a son should kill his true parent.

Furthermore, of what they may not do, they may not speak, either. They hold lying to be the most disgraceful thing of all and next to that debt; for which they have many other reasons, but this in particular: it is inevitable (so they say) that the debtor also speak some falsehood. The citizen who has leprosy or the white sickness may not come into town or mingle with other Persians. They say that he is so afflicted because he has sinned in some way against the sun.

Every stranger who gets such a disease, many drive out of the country; and they do the same to white doves, for the reason given. Rivers they especially revere; they will neither urinate nor spit nor wash their hands in them, nor let anyone else do so.

There is another thing that always happens among them; we have noted it although the Persians have not: their names, which agree with the nature of their persons and their nobility, all end in the same letter, that which the Dorians call san, and the Ionians sigma; you will find, if you search, that not some but all Persian names alike end in this letter.

So much I can say of them from my own certain knowledge. But there are other matters concerning the dead which are secretly and obscurely told: how the dead bodies of Persians are not buried before they have been mangled by birds or dogs.

That this is the way of the Magi, I know for certain; for they do not conceal the practice. But this is certain, that before the Persians bury the body in earth they embalm it in wax. These Magi are as unlike the priests of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt as they are unlike all other men:

for the priests consider it sacrilege to kill anything that lives, except what they sacrifice; but the Magi kill with their own hands every creature, except dogs and men; they kill all alike, ants and snakes, creeping and flying things, and take great pride in it. Leaving this custom to be such as it has been from the first, I return now to my former story.

As soon as the Lydians had been subjugated by the Persians, the Ionians and Aeolians sent messengers to Cyrus, offering to be his subjects on the same terms as those which they had under Croesus. After hearing what they proposed, Cyrus told them a story. Once, he said, there was a flute-player who saw fish in the sea and played upon his flute, thinking that they would come out on to the land.

Disappointed of his hope, he cast a net and gathered it in and took out a great multitude of fish; and seeing them leaping, “You had best,” he said, “stop your dancing now; you would not come out and dance before, when I played to you.”

The reason why Cyrus told the story to the Ionians and Aeolians was that the Ionians, who were ready to obey him when the victory was won, had before refused when he sent a message asking them to revolt from Croesus.

So he answered them in anger. But when the message came to the Ionians in their cities, they fortified themselves with walls, and assembled in the Panionion [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) Panionion , all except the Milesians, with whom alone Cyrus made a treaty on the same terms as that which they had with the Lydians. The rest of the Ionians resolved to send envoys in the name of them all to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , to ask help for the Ionians.

Now these Ionians possessed the Panionion [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) Panionion , and of all men whom we know, they happened to found their cities in places with the loveliest of climate and seasons.

For neither to the north of them nor to the south does the land effect the same thing as in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia [nor to the east nor to the west], affected here by the cold and wet, there by the heat and drought.

They do not all have the same speech but four different dialects. Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus lies farthest south among them, and next to it come Myous (deserted settlement), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Myus and Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) Priene ; these are settlements in Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Caria , and they have a common language; Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Ephesus , Colophon [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) Colophon , Lebedos, Teos [26.8,38.1667] (Perseus) Teos , Klazomenai [26.7833,38.3167] (Perseus) Clazomenae , Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea , all of them in Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia ,

have a language in common which is wholly different from the speech of the three former cities. There are yet three Ionian cities, two of them situated on the islands of Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos and Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios , and one, Erythrae, on the mainland; the Chians and Erythraeans speak alike, but the Samians have a language which is their own and no one else's. It is thus seen that there are four modes of speech.

Among these Ionians, the Milesians were safe from the danger (for they had made a treaty), and the islanders among them had nothing to fear: for the Phoenicians were not yet subjects of the Persians, nor were the Persians themselves mariners.

But those of Asia (continent) Asia were cut off from the rest of the Ionians only in the way that I shall show. The whole Hellenic stock was then small, and the last of all its branches and the least regarded was the Ionian; for it had no considerable city except Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

Now the Athenians and the rest would not be called Ionians, but spurned the name; even now the greater number of them seem to me to be ashamed of it; but the twelve cities aforesaid gloried in this name, and founded a holy place for themselves which they called the Panionion [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) Panionion , and agreed among themselves to allow no other Ionians to use it (nor in fact did any except the men of Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) Smyrna ask to be admitted);

just as the Dorians of what is now the country of the “Five Cities”—formerly the country of the “Six Cities”—forbid admitting any of the neighboring Dorians to the Triopian temple, and even barred from using it those of their own group who had broken the temple law.

For long ago, in the games in honor of Triopian Apollo, they offered certain bronze tripods to the victors; and those who won these were not to carry them away from the temple but dedicate them there to the god.

Now when a man of Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Halicarnassus called Agasicles won, he disregarded this law, and, carrying the tripod away, nailed it to the wall of his own house. For this offense the five cities—Lindos [28.1083,36.0833] (Perseus) Lindus , Trianda [28.166,36.416] (inhabited place), Rhodes, Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Ialysus , Camirus, Kos City [27.3,36.8917] (Perseus) Cos , and Cnidus Nova [27.366,36.666] (deserted settlement), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Cnidus —forbade the sixth city—Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Halicarnassus —to share in the use of the temple. Such was the penalty imposed on the Halicarnassians.

As for the Ionians, the reason why they made twelve cities and would admit no more was in my judgment this: there were twelve divisions of them when they dwelt in the Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese , just as there are twelve divisions of the Achaeans who drove the Ionians out—Pellene [22.5583,38.05] (Perseus) Pellene nearest to Sikyon [22.725,37.9833] (Perseus) Sicyon ; then Aegira [22.3833,38.1333] (Perseus) Aegira and Aegae [22.05,40.8] (Perseus) Aegae , where is the never-failing river Crathis, from which the river in Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe Italy took its name; Bura [22.2167,38.15] (Perseus) Bura and Helike [22.1167,38.2167] (Perseus) Helice , where the Ionians fled when they were worsted in battle by the Achaeans; Aegion; Rhype; Patrai [21.75,38.2333] (Perseus) Patrae ; Phareae; and Olenus [21.55,38.15] (Perseus) Olenus , where is the great river Pirus; Dyme [21.5833,38.1] (Perseus) Dyme and Tritaeae, the only inland city of all these—these were the twelve divisions of the Ionians, as they are now of the Achaeans.

For this reason, and for no other, the Ionians too made twelve cities; for it would be foolishness to say that these are more truly Ionian or better born than the other Ionians; since not the least part of them are Abantes from Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Euboea , who are not Ionians even in name, and there are mingled with them Minyans of Orkhomenos (deserted settlement), Boeotia, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Orchomenus , Cadmeans, Dryopians, Phocian renegades from their nation, Molossians, Pelasgian Arcadians, Dorians of Epidauros [23.0917,37.6] (Perseus) Epidaurus , and many other tribes;

and as for those who came from the very town-hall of Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens and think they are the best born of the Ionians, these did not bring wives with them to their settlements, but married Carian women whose parents they had put to death.

For this slaughter, these women made a custom and bound themselves by oath (and enjoined it on their daughters) that no one would sit at table with her husband or call him by his name, because the men had married them after slaying their fathers and husbands and sons. This happened at Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus .

And as kings, some of them chose Lycian descendants of Glaucus son of Hippolochus, and some Caucones of Pylus, descendants of Codrus son of Melanthus, and some both. Yet since they set more store by the name than the rest of the Ionians, let it be granted that those of pure birth are Ionians;

and all are Ionians who are of Athenian descent and keep the feast Apaturia. All do keep it, except the men of Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Ephesus and Colophon [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) Colophon ; these are the only Ionians who do not keep it, and these because, they say, of a certain pretext of murder.

The Panionion [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) Panionion is a sacred ground in Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale , facing north; it was set apart for Poseidon of Helicon by the joint will of the Ionians. Mykale [26.8667,38.1] (Perseus) Mykale is a western promontory of the mainland opposite Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos ; the Ionians used to assemble there from their cities and keep the festival to which they gave the name of Panionia.

Not only the Ionian festivals, but all those of all the Greeks alike, end in the same letter, just as do the names of the Persians.

Those are the Ionian cities, and these are the Aeolian: Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) Cyme (called “Phriconian”), Lerisae, Neon Teichos, Temnos, Cilla, Notium (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Notion , Aegiroessa, Pitane [26.9333,38.9333] (Perseus) Pitane , Aegaeae, Mirina [25.66,39.866] (inhabited place), Lemnos, Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Myrina , Gryneia. These are the ancient Aeolian cities, eleven in number; but one of them, Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) Smyrna , was taken away by the Ionians; for these too were once twelve, on the mainland.

These Aeolians had settled where the land was better than the Ionian territory, but the climate was not so good.

Now this is how the Aeolians lost Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) Smyrna . Some men of Colophon [27.1333,38.1167] (Perseus) Colophon , the losers in civil strife and exiles from their country, had been received by them into the town. These Colophonian exiles waited for the time when the men of Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) Smyrna were holding a festival to Dionysus outside the walls; then they shut the gates and so got the city.

Then all the Aeolians came to recover it; and an agreement was made, whereby the Aeolians would receive back their movable goods from the Ionians, and leave the city. After this was done, the other eleven cities divided the Smyrnaeans among themselves and made them citizens of their own.

These then are the Aeolian cities on the mainland, besides those that are situated on Ida and are separate.

Among those on the islands, five divide Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lesbos among them (there was a sixth on Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lesbos , Arisba, but its people were enslaved by their kinfolk of Methymna [26.2,39.3333] (Perseus) Methymna ); there is one on Tenedos [26.05,39.8167] (Perseus) Tenedos , and one again in the “Hundred Isles,” as they are called.

The men of Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lesbos and Tenedos [26.05,39.8167] (Perseus) Tenedos , then, like the Ionian islanders, had nothing to fear. The rest of the cities deliberated together and decided to follow the Ionians' lead.

So when the envoys of the Ionians and Aeolians came to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta (for they set about this in haste) they chose a Phocaean, whose name was Pythennos, to speak for all. He then put on a purple cloak, so that as many Spartans as possible might assemble to hear him, and stood up and made a long speech asking aid for his people.

But the Lacedaemonians would not listen to him and refused to help the Ionians. So the Ionians departed; but the Lacedaemonians, though they had rejected their envoys, did nevertheless send men in a ship of fifty oars to see (as I suppose) the situation with Cyrus and Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia .

These, after coming to Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea , sent Lacrines, who was the most esteemed among them, to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , to repeat there to Cyrus a proclamation of the Lacedaemonians, that he was to harm no city on Greek territory, or else the Lacedaemonians would punish him.

When the herald had proclaimed this, Cyrus is said to have asked the Greeks who were present who and how many in number these Lacedaemonians were who made this declaration. When he was told, he said to the Spartan herald, “I never yet feared men who set apart a place in the middle of their city where they perjure themselves and deceive each other. They, if I keep my health, shall talk of their own misfortunes, not those of the Ionians.”

He uttered this threat against all the Greeks, because they have markets and buy and sell there; for the Persians themselves were not used to resorting to markets at all, nor do they even have a market of any kind.

Presently, entrusting Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis to a Persian called Tabalus, and instructing Pactyes, a Lydian, to take charge of the gold of Croesus and the Lydians, he himself marched away to Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana , taking Croesus with him, and at first taking no notice of the Ionians.

For he had Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon on his hands and the Bactrian nation and the Sacae and Egyptians; he meant to lead the army against these himself, and to send another commander against the Ionians.

But no sooner had Cyrus marched away from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis than Pactyes made the Lydians revolt from Tabalus and Cyrus; and he went down to the sea, where, as he had all the gold of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , he hired soldiers and persuaded the men of the coast to join his undertaking. Then, marching to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , he penned Tabalus in the acropolis and besieged him there.

When Cyrus heard of this on his journey, he said to Croesus, “What end to this business, Croesus? It seems that the Lydians will never stop making trouble for me and for themselves. It occurs to me that it may be best to make slaves of them; for it seems I have acted like one who slays the father and spares the children.

So likewise I have taken with me you who were more than a father to the Lydians, and handed the city over to the Lydians themselves; and then indeed I marvel that they revolt!” So Cyrus uttered his thought; but Croesus feared that he would destroy Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , and answered him thus:

“O King, what you say is reasonable. But do not ever yield to anger, or destroy an ancient city that is innocent both of the former and of the present offense. For the former I am responsible, and bear the punishment on my head; while Pactyes, in whose charge you left Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , does this present wrong; let him, then, pay the penalty.

But pardon the Lydians, and give them this command so that they not revolt or pose a danger to you: send and forbid them to possess weapons of war, and order them to wear tunics under their cloaks and knee-boots on their feet, and to teach their sons lyre-playing and song and dance and shop-keeping. And quickly, O king, you shall see them become women instead of men, so that you need not fear them, that they might revolt.”

Croesus proposed this to him, because he thought this was better for the Lydians than to be sold as slaves; he knew that without some reasonable plea he could not change the king's mind, and feared that even if the Lydians should escape this time they might later revolt and be destroyed by the Persians.

Cyrus was pleased by this counsel; he relented in his anger and said he would follow Croesus' advice. Then calling Mazares, a Mede, he told him to give the Lydians the commands that Croesus advised; further, to enslave all the others who had joined the Lydians in attacking Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ; and as for Pactyes himself, by all means to bring him into his presence alive.

After giving these commands on his journey, he marched away into the Persian country. But Pactyes, learning that an army sent against him was approaching, was frightened and fled to Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) Cyme .

Mazares the Mede, when he came to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis with the part that he had of Cyrus' host and found Pactyes' followers no longer there, first of all compelled the Lydians to carry out Cyrus' commands; and by his order they changed their whole way of life.

After this, he sent messengers to Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) Cyme demanding that Pactyes be surrendered. The Cymaeans resolved to make the god at Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Branchidae their judge as to what course they should take; for there was an ancient place of divination there, which all the Ionians and Aeolians used to consult; the place is in the land of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , above the harbor of Panormus [27.2167,37.3833] (Perseus) Panormus .

The men of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) Cyme , then, sent to Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Branchidae to inquire of the shrine what they should do in the matter of Pactyes that would be most pleasing to the gods; and the oracle replied that they must surrender Pactyes to the Persians.

When this answer came back to them, they set about surrendering him. But while the greater part were in favor of doing this, Aristodicus son of Heraclides, a notable man among the citizens, stopped the men of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) Cyme from doing it; for he did not believe the oracle and thought that those who had inquired of the god spoke falsely; until at last a second band of inquirers was sent to inquire concerning Pactyes, among whom was Aristodicus.

When they came to Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Branchidae , Aristodicus, speaking for all, put this question to the oracle: “Lord, Pactyes the Lydian has come to us a suppliant fleeing a violent death at the hands of the Persians; and they demand him of us, telling the men of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) Cyme to surrender him.

But we, as much as we fear the Persian power, have not dared give up this suppliant of ours until it is clearly made known to us by you whether we are to do this or not.” Thus Aristodicus inquired; and the god again gave the same answer, that Pactyes should be surrendered to the Persians.

With that Aristodicus did as he had already decided; he went around the temple, and took away the sparrows and all the families of nesting birds that were in it. But while he was doing so, a voice (they say) came out of the inner shrine calling to Aristodicus, and saying, “Vilest of men, how dare you do this? Will you rob my temple of those that take refuge with me?”

Then Aristodicus had his answer ready: “Lord,” he said, “will you save your own suppliants, yet tell the men of Kyme [24.1167,38.6333] (Perseus) Cyme to deliver up theirs?” But the god replied, “Yes, I do command them, so that you may perish all the sooner for your impiety, and never again come to inquire of my oracle about giving up those that seek refuge with you.”

When the Cymaeans heard this answer, they sent Pactyes away to Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) Mytilene ; for they were anxious not to perish for delivering him up or to be besieged for keeping him with them.

Then Mazares sent a message to Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) Mytilene demanding the surrender of Pactyes, and the Mytilenaeans prepared to give him, for a price; I cannot say exactly how much it was, for the bargain was never fulfilled;

for when the Cymaeans learned what the Mytilenaeans were about, they sent a ship to Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lesbos and took Pactyes away to Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios . From there he was dragged out of the temple of City-guarding Athena and delivered up by the Chians,

who received in return Atarneus [26.95,39.05] (Perseus) Atarneus , which is a district in Mysia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Mysia opposite Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lesbos . The Persians thus received Pactyes and kept him guarded, so that they might show him to Cyrus;

and for a long time no one would use barley meal from this land of Atarneus [26.95,39.05] (Perseus) Atarneus in sacrifices to any god, or make sacrificial cakes of what grew there; everything that came from that country was kept away from any sacred rite.

The Chians, then, surrendered Pactyes, and afterwards Mazares led his army against those who had helped to besiege Tabalus, and he enslaved the people of Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) Priene , and overran the plain of the Maeandrus, giving it to his army to pillage and Magnesia ad Meander [27.416,37.833] (deserted settlement), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Magnesia likewise. Immediately after this he died of an illness.

After his death, Harpagus, a Mede like Mazares, came down to succeed him in his command; this is the Harpagus who was entertained by Astyages the king of the Medes at that unnatural feast, and who helped win the kingship for Cyrus.

This man was now made general by Cyrus. When he came to Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia , he took the cities by means of earthworks; he would drive the men within their walls and then build earthworks against the walls and so take the cities.

Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea was the first Ionian town that he attacked. These Phocaeans were the earliest of the Greeks to make long sea-voyages, and it was they who discovered the Adriatic Sea [16,43] (sea), Europe Adriatic Sea , and Etruria (region (general)), Italy, EuropeTyrrhenia, and Iberian Peninsula (peninsula), Europe Iberia , and Tartessus,

not sailing in round freightships but in fifty-oared vessels. When they came to Tartessus they made friends with the king of the Tartessians, whose name was Arganthonius; he ruled Tartessus for eighty years and lived a hundred and twenty.

The Phocaeans won this man's friendship to such a degree that he invited them to leave Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia and settle in his country wherever they liked; and then, when he could not persuade them to, and learned from them how the Median power was increasing, he gave them money to build a wall around their city.

He gave it generously: for the circuit of the wall is of not a few stades, and all this is made of great stones well fitted together.

In such a manner the Phocaeans' wall was built. Harpagus marched against the city and besieged it, but he made overtures, and said that it would suffice him if the Phocaeans would demolish one rampart of the wall and dedicate one house.

But the Phocaeans, very indignant at the thought of slavery, said they wanted to deliberate for a day, and then they would answer; but while they were deliberating, Harpagus must withdraw his army from the walls, they said. Harpagus said that he well knew what they intended to do, but that nevertheless he would allow them to deliberate.

So when Harpagus withdrew his army from the walls, the Phocaeans launched their fifty-oared ships, embarked their children and women and all their movable goods, besides the statues from the temples and everything dedicated in them except bronze or stonework or painting, and then embarked themselves and set sail for Chios [26,38.366] (island), Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios ; and the Persians took Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea , left thus uninhabited.

The Phocaeans would have bought the islands called Oenussae from the Chians; but the Chians would not sell them, because they feared that the islands would become a market and so their own island be cut off from trade: so the Phocaeans prepared to sail to Corsica [9,42] (region), France, Europe Cyrnus , where at the command of an oracle they had built a city called Aleria [9.5,42.83] (inhabited place), Haute-Corse, Corsica, France, Europe Alalia twenty years before.

Arganthonius was by this time dead. While getting ready for their voyage, they first sailed to Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea , where they destroyed the Persian guard to whom Harpagus had entrusted the defense of the city; and when this was done, they called down mighty curses on any one of them who should stay behind when the rest sailed.

Not only this, but they sank a mass of iron in the sea, and swore never to return to Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea before the iron should appear again. But while they prepared to sail to Cyrnus, more than half of the citizens were overcome with longing and pitiful sorrow for the city and the life of their land, and they broke their oath and sailed back to Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea . Those of them who kept the oath put out to sea from the Oenussae.

And when they came to Cyrnus they lived there for five years as one community with those who had come first, and they founded temples there. But they harassed and plundered all their neighbors, as a result of which the Tyrrhenians and Carthaginians made common cause against them, and sailed to attack them with sixty ships each.

The Phocaeans also manned their ships, sixty in number, and met the enemy in the sea called Sardonian. They engaged and the Phocaeans won, yet it was only a kind of Cadmean victory; for they lost forty of their ships, and the twenty that remained were useless, their rams twisted awry.

Then sailing to Aleria [9.5,42.83] (inhabited place), Haute-Corse, Corsica, France, Europe Alalia they took their children and women and all of their possessions that their ships could hold on board, and leaving Cyrnus they sailed to Reggio di Calabria [15.65,38.1] (inhabited place), Reggio di Calabria, Calabria, Italy, Europe Rhegium .

As for the crews of the disabled ships, the Carthaginians and Tyrrhenians drew lots for them, and of the Tyrrhenians the Agyllaioi were allotted by far the majority and these they led out and stoned to death. But afterwards, everything from Agylla that passed the place where the stoned Phocaeans lay, whether sheep or beasts of burden or men, became distorted and crippled and palsied.

The Agyllaeans sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , wanting to mend their offense; and the Pythian priestess told them to do what the people of Agylla do to this day: for they pay great honors to the Phocaeans, with religious rites and games and horse-races.

Such was the end of this part of the Phocaeans. Those of them who fled to Reggio di Calabria [15.65,38.1] (inhabited place), Reggio di Calabria, Calabria, Italy, Europe Rhegium set out from there and gained possession of that city in the Oenotrian country which is now called Elea (deserted settlement), Salerno, Campania, Italy, Europe Hyele ;

they founded this because they learned from a man of Posidonia that the Cyrnus whose establishment the Pythian priestess ordained was the hero, and not the island.

Thus, then, it went with the Ionian Phocaea. The Teians did the same things as the Phocaeans: when Harpagus had taken their walled city by building an earthwork, they all embarked aboard ship and sailed away for Thrace (region (general)), Europe Thrace . There they founded a city, Abdera [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) Abdera , which before this had been founded by Timesius of Klazomenai [26.7833,38.3167] (Perseus) Clazomenae ; yet he got no profit of it, but was driven out by the Thracians. This Timesius is now honored as a hero by the Teians of Abdera [24.9667,40.9833] (Perseus) Abdera .

These were the only Ionians who left their native lands, unable to endure slavery. The rest of the Ionians, except the Milesians, though they faced Harpagus in battle as did the exiles, and conducted themselves well, each fighting for his own country, yet, when they were defeated and their cities taken, they remained where they were and did as they were told.

The Milesians, as I have already said, made a treaty with Cyrus himself and struck no blow. Thus Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia was enslaved for the second time: and when Harpagus had conquered the Ionians of the mainland, the Ionians of the islands, fearing the same fate, surrendered to Cyrus.

When the Ionians, despite their evil plight, nonetheless assembled at the Panionion [27.1167,37.6833] (Perseus) Panionion , Bias of Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) Priene , I have learned, gave them very useful advice, and had they followed it they might have been the most prosperous of all Greeks:

for he advised them to put out to sea and sail all together to Sardo and then found one city for all Ionians: thus, possessing the greatest island in the world and ruling others, they would be rid of slavery and have prosperity; but if they stayed in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia he could see (he said) no hope of freedom for them.

This was the advice which Bias of Priene [27.2833,37.6333] (Perseus) Priene gave after the destruction of the Ionians; and that given before the destruction by Thales of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus , a Phoenician by descent, was good too; he advised that the Ionians have one place of deliberation, and that it be in Teos [26.8,38.1667] (Perseus) Teos (for that was the center of Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia ), and that the other cities be considered no more than demes.Thus Bias and Thales advised.

Harpagus, after subjugating Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia , made an expedition against the Carians, Caunians, and Lycians, taking Ionians and Aeolians with him.

Of these, the Carians have come to the mainland from the islands; for in the past they were islanders, called Leleges and under the rule of Minos, not (as far as I can learn by report) paying tribute, but manning ships for him when he needed them.

Since Minos had subjected a good deal of territory for himself and was victorious in war, this made the Carians too at that time by far the most respected of all nations.

They invented three things in which they were followed by the Greeks: it was the Carians who originated wearing crests on their helmets and devices on their shields, and who first made grips for their shields; until then all who used shields carried them without these grips, and guided them with leather belts which they slung round the neck and over the left shoulder.

Then, a long time afterwards, the Carians were driven from the islands by Dorians and Ionians and so came to the mainland. This is the Cretan story about the Carians; but the Carians themselves do not subscribe to it, but believe that they are aboriginal inhabitants of the mainland and always bore the name which they bear now;

and they point to an ancient shrine of Carian Zeus at Mylasa [27.8,37.3167] (Perseus) Mylasa , to which Mysians and Lydians, as brethren of the Carians (for Lydus and Mysus, they say, were brothers of Car), are admitted, but not those who spoke the same language as the Carians but were of another people.

I think the Caunians are aborigines of the soil, but they say that they came from Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete . Their speech has become like the Carian, or the Carian like theirs (for I cannot clearly decide), but in their customs they diverge widely from the Carians, as from all other men. Their chief pleasure is to assemble for drinking-bouts in groups according to their ages and friendships: men, women, and children.

Certain foreign rites of worship were established among them; but afterwards, when they were inclined otherwise, and wanted to worship only the gods of their fathers, all Caunian men of full age put on their armor and went together as far as the boundaries of Calynda, striking the air with their spears and saying that they were casting out the alien gods.

Such are their ways. The Lycians were from Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete in ancient times (for in the past none that lived on Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete were Greek).

Now there was a dispute in Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete about the royal power between Sarpedon and Minos, sons of Europa; Minos prevailed in this dispute and drove out Sarpedon and his partisans; who, after being driven out, came to the Milyan land in Asia (continent) Asia . What is now possessed by the Lycians was in the past Milyan, and the Milyans were then called Solymi.

For a while Sarpedon ruled them, and the people were called Termilae, which was the name that they had brought with them and that is still given to the Lycians by their neighbors; but after Lycus son of Pandion came from Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens —banished as well by his brother, Aegeus—to join Sarpedon in the land of the Termilae, they came in time to be called Lycians after Lycus.

Their customs are partly Cretan and partly Carian. But they have one which is their own and shared by no other men: they take their names not from their fathers but from their mothers,

and when one is asked by his neighbor who he is, he will say that he is the son of such a mother, and rehearse the mothers of his mother. Indeed, if a female citizen marries a slave, her children are considered pure-blooded; but if a male citizen, even the most prominent of them, takes an alien wife or concubine, the children are dishonored.

Neither the Carians nor any Greeks who dwell in this country did any thing notable before they were all enslaved by Harpagus.

Among those who inhabit it are certain Cnidians, colonists from Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon . Their country (it is called the Triopion) lies between the sea and that part of the peninsula which belongs to Bubassus, and all but a small part of the Cnidian territory is washed by the sea

(for it is bounded on the north by the gulf of Ceramicus, and on the south by the sea off Nisos Symi [27.833,36.583] (island), Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Syme and Rhodes [28,36.166] (island), Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Rhodes ). Now while Harpagus was conquering Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia , the Cnidians dug a trench across this little space, which is about two-thirds of a mile wide, in order that their country might be an island. So they brought it all within the entrenchment; for the frontier between the Cnidian country and the mainland is on the isthmus across which they dug.

Many of them were at this work; and seeing that the workers were injured when breaking stones more often and less naturally than usual, some in other ways, but most in the eyes, the Cnidians sent envoys to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to inquire what it was that opposed them.

“Do not wall or trench the isthmus: Zeus would have given you an island, if he had wanted to.”

At this answer from the priestess, the Cnidians stopped their digging, and when Harpagus came against them with his army they surrendered to him without resistance.

There were Pedaseans dwelling inland above Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Halicarnassus ; when any misfortune was approaching them or their neighbors, the priestess of Athena grew a long beard. This had happened to them thrice. These were the only men near Caria [28,37.5] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Caria who held out for long against Harpagus, and they gave him the most trouble; they fortified a hill called Lide.

The Pedaseans were at length taken, and when Harpagus led his army into the plain of Xanthos [29.35,36.3833] (Perseus) Xanthus , the Lycians came out to meet him, and showed themselves courageous fighting few against many; but being beaten and driven into the city, they gathered their wives and children and goods and servants into the acropolis, and then set the whole acropolis on fire.

Then they swore great oaths to each other, and sallying out fell fighting, all the men of Xanthos [29.35,36.3833] (Perseus) Xanthus .

Of the Xanthians who claim now to be Lycians the greater number, all except eighty households, are of foreign descent; these eighty families as it happened were away from the city at that time, and thus survived. So Harpagus gained Xanthos [29.35,36.3833] (Perseus) Xanthus , and Caunus [28.6333,36.8333] (Perseus) Caunus too in a somewhat similar manner, the Caunians following for the most part the example of the Lycians.

Harpagus, then, made havoc of lower Asia (continent) Asia ; in the upper country, Cyrus himself vanquished every nation, leaving none untouched. Of the greater part of these I will say nothing, but will speak only of those which gave Cyrus the most trouble and are most worthy of being described.

When Cyrus had made all the mainland submit to him, he attacked the Assyrians. In Assyria there are many other great cities, but the most famous and the strongest was Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , where the royal dwelling had been established after the destruction of Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus . Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon was a city such as I will now describe.

It lies in a great plain, and is in shape a square, each side fifteen miles in length; thus sixty miles make the complete circuit of the city. Such is the size of the city of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon ; and it was planned like no other city of which we know.

Around it runs first a moat deep and wide and full of water, and then a wall eighty three feet thick and three hundred thirty three feet high. The royal measure is greater by three fingers' breadth than the common measure.

Further, I must relate where the earth was used as it was dug from the moat and how the wall was constructed. As they dug the moat, they made bricks of the earth which was carried out of the place they dug, and when they had moulded bricks enough, they baked them in ovens;

then using hot bitumen for cement and interposing layers of wattled reeds at every thirtieth course of bricks, they built first the border of the moat and then the wall itself in the same fashion.

On the top, along the edges of the wall, they built houses of a single room, facing each other, with space enough between to drive a four-horse chariot. There are a hundred gates in the circuit of the wall, all of bronze, with posts and lintels of the same.

There is another city, called Is, eight days' journey from Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , where there is a little river, also named Is, a tributary of the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates river ; from the source of this river Is, many lumps of bitumen rise with the water; and from there the bitumen was brought for the wall of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon .

Thus, then, this wall was built; the city is divided into two parts; for it is cut in half by a river named Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates , a wide, deep, and swift river, flowing from Armenia (region (general)), Asia Armenia and issuing into the Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea .

The angles of the wall, then, on either side are built quite down to the river; here they turn, and from here a fence of baked bricks runs along each bank of the stream.

The city itself is full of houses three and four stories high; and the ways that traverse it, those that run crosswise towards the river and the rest, are all straight.

Further, at the end of each road there was a gate in the riverside fence, one gate for each alley; these gates also were of bronze, and these too opened on the river.

These walls are the city's outer armor; within them there is another encircling wall, nearly as strong as the other, but narrower.

In the middle of one division of the city stands the royal palace, surrounded by a high and strong wall; and in the middle of the other is still to this day the sacred enclosure of Zeus Belus, a square of four hundred and forty yards each way, with gates of bronze.

In the center of this sacred enclosure a solid tower has been built, two hundred and twenty yards long and broad; a second tower rises from this and from it yet another, until at last there are eight.

The way up them mounts spirally outside the height of the towers; about halfway up is a resting place, with seats for repose, where those who ascend sit down and rest.

In the last tower there is a great shrine; and in it stands a great and well-covered couch, and a golden table nearby. But no image has been set up in the shrine, nor does any human creature lie there for the night, except one native woman, chosen from all women by the god, as the Chaldaeans say, who are priests of this god.

These same Chaldaeans say (though I do not believe them) that the god himself is accustomed to visit the shrine and rest on the couch, as in Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , as the Egyptians say

(for there too a woman sleeps in the temple of Theban Zeus, and neither the Egyptian nor the Babylonian woman, it is said, has intercourse with men), and as does the prophetess of the god at Patara [29.35,36.2167] (Perseus) Patara in Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lycia , whenever she is appointed; for there is not always a place of divination there; but when she is appointed she is shut up in the temple during the night.

In the Babylonian temple there is another shrine below, where there is a great golden image of Zeus, sitting at a great golden table, and the footstool and the chair are also gold; the gold of the whole was said by the Chaldeans to be eight hundred talents' weight.

Outside the temple is a golden altar. There is also another great altar, on which are sacrificed the full-grown of the flocks; only nurslings may be sacrificed on the golden altar, but on the greater altar the Chaldeans even offer a thousand talents' weight of frankincense yearly, when they keep the festival of this god; and in the days of Cyrus there was still in this sacred enclosure a statue of solid gold twenty feet high.

I myself have not seen it, but I relate what is told by the Chaldeans. Darius son of Hystaspes proposed to take this statue but dared not; Xerxes his son took it, and killed the priest who warned him not to move the statue. Such is the furniture of this temple, and there are many private offerings besides.

Now among the many rulers of this city of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon (whom I shall mention in my Assyrian history) who finished the building of the walls and the temples, there were two that were women. The first of these lived five generations earlier than the second, and her name was Semiramis: it was she who built dikes on the plain, a notable work; before that the whole plain used to be flooded by the river.

The second queen, whose name was Nitocris, was a wiser woman than the first. She left such monuments as I shall record; and moreover, seeing that the kingdom of Media was great and restless and Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus itself among other cities had fallen to it, she took such precautions as she could for her protection.

First she dealt with the river Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates , which flows through the middle of her city; this had been straight before; but by digging canals higher up she made the river so crooked that its course now passes one of the Assyrian villages three times; the village which is so approached by the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates is called Ardericca. And now those who travel from our sea to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon must spend three days as they float down the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates coming three times to the same village.

Such was this work; and she built an embankment along either shore of the river, marvellous for its greatness and height.

Then a long way above Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon she dug the reservoir of a lake, a little way off from the river, always digging deep enough to find water, and making the circumference a distance of fifty two miles; what was dug out of this hole, she used to embank either edge of the river;

and when she had it all dug, she brought stones and made a quay all around the lake.

Her purpose in making the river wind and turning the hole into marsh was this: that the current might be slower because of the many windings that broke its force, and that the passages to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon might be crooked, and that right after them should come also the long circuit of the lake.

All this work was done in that part of the country where the passes are and the shortest road from Media, so that the Medes might not mix with her people and learn of her affairs.

So she made the deep river her protection; and this work led to another which she added to it. Her city was divided into two parts by the river that flowed through the middle. In the days of the former rulers, when one wanted to go from one part to the other, one had to cross in a boat; and this, I suppose, was a nuisance. But the queen also provided for this; she made another monument of her reign out of this same work when the digging of the basin of the lake was done.

She had very long blocks of stone cut; and when these were ready and the place was dug, she turned the course of the river into it, and while it was filling, the former channel now being dry, she bricked the borders of the river in the city and the descent from the gate leading down to the river with baked bricks, like those of the wall; and near the middle of the city she built a bridge with the stones that had been dug up, binding them together with iron and lead.

Each morning, she laid square-hewn logs across it, on which the Babylonians crossed; but these logs were removed at night, lest folk always be crossing over and stealing from one another.

Then, when the basin she had made for a lake was filled by the river and the bridge was finished, Nitocris brought the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates back to its former channel out of the lake; thus she had served her purpose, as she thought, by making a swamp of the basin, and her citizens had a bridge made for them.

There was a trick, too, that this same queen contrived. She had a tomb made for herself and set high over the very gate of that entrance of the city which was used most, with writing engraved on the tomb, which read:

“If any king of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon in the future is in need of money, let him open this tomb and take as much as he likes: but let him not open it unless he is in need; for it will be the worse for him.”

This tomb remained untouched until the kingship fell to Darius. He thought it a very strange thing that he should never use this gate, or take the money when it lay there and the writing itself invited him to.

The reason he did not use the gate was that the dead body would be over his head as he passed through.

After opening the tomb, he found no money there, only the dead body, with writing which read: “If you were ever satisfied with what you had and did not disgrace yourself seeking more, you would not have opened the coffins of the dead.” Such a woman, it is recorded, was this queen.

Cyrus, then, marched against Nitocris' son, who inherited the name of his father Labynetus and the sovereignty of Assyria. Now when the Great King campaigns, he marches well provided with food and flocks from home; and water from the Choaspes river that flows past Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa is carried with him, the only river from which the king will drink.

This water of the Choaspes is boiled, and very many four-wheeled wagons drawn by mules carry it in silver vessels, following the king wherever he goes at any time.

When Cyrus reached the Gyndes river on his march to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , which rises in the mountains of the Matieni and flows through the Dardanean country into another river, the Tigris [47.416,31] (river), Asia Tigris , that again passes the city of Opis and empties into the Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea —when, I say, Cyrus tried to cross the Gyndes, which was navigable there, one of his sacred white horses dashed recklessly into the river trying to get through it, but the current overwhelmed him and swept him under and away.

At this violence of the river Cyrus was very angry, and he threatened to make it so feeble that women could ever after cross it easily without wetting their knees.

After uttering this threat, he paused in his march against Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , and, dividing his army into two parts, drew lines planning out a hundred and eighty canals running every way from either bank of the Gyndes; then he organized his army along the lines and made them dig.

Since a great multitude was at work, it went quickly; but they spent the whole summer there before it was finished.

Then at the beginning of the following spring, when Cyrus had punished the Gyndes by dividing it among the three hundred and sixty canals, he marched against Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon at last. The Babylonians sallied out and awaited him; and when he came near their city in his march, they engaged him, but they were beaten and driven inside the city.

There they had stored provisions enough for very many years, because they knew already that Cyrus was not a man of no ambitition, and saw that he attacked all nations alike; so now they were indifferent to the siege; and Cyrus did not know what to do, being so long delayed and gaining no advantage.

Whether someone advised him in his difficulty, or whether he perceived for himself what to do, I do not know, but he did the following.

He posted his army at the place where the river goes into the city, and another part of it behind the city, where the river comes out of the city, and told his men to enter the city by the channel of the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates when they saw it to be fordable. Having disposed them and given this command, he himself marched away with those of his army who could not fight;

and when he came to the lake, Cyrus dealt with it and with the river just as had the Babylonian queen: drawing off the river by a canal into the lake, which was a marsh, he made the stream sink until its former channel could be forded.

When this happened, the Persians who were posted with this objective made their way into Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon by the channel of the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates , which had now sunk to a depth of about the middle of a man's thigh.

Now if the Babylonians had known beforehand or learned what Cyrus was up to, they would have let the Persians enter the city and have destroyed them utterly; for then they would have shut all the gates that opened on the river and mounted the walls that ran along the river banks, and so caught their enemies in a trap.

But as it was, the Persians took them unawares, and because of the great size of the city (those who dwell there say) those in the outer parts of it were overcome, but the inhabitants of the middle part knew nothing of it; all this time they were dancing and celebrating a holiday which happened to fall then, until they learned the truth only too well.

And Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , then for the first time, was taken in this way. I shall show how great the power of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon is by many other means, but particularly by this. All the land that the great King rules is parcelled out to provision him and his army, and pays tribute besides: now the territory of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon feeds him for four of the twelve months in the year, the whole of the rest of Asia (continent) Asia providing for the other eight.

Thus the wealth of Assyria is one third of the entire wealth of Asia (continent) Asia . The governorship of this land, which the Persians call “satrapy,” is by far the most powerful of all the governorships, since the daily income of Tritantaechmes son of Artabazus, who governed this province by the king's will, was an artaba full of silver

(the artaba is a Persian measure, containing more than an Attic medimnus by three Attic choenixes), and besides warhorses he had eight hundred stallions in his stables, and sixteen thousand brood mares, each stallion servicing twenty mares.

Moreover he kept so great a number of Indian dogs that four great villages of the plain were appointed to provide food for the dogs and exempted from all other burdens. Such were the riches of the governor of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon .

There is little rain in Assyria. This nourishes the roots of the grain; but it is irrigation from the river that ripens the crop and brings the grain to fullness. In Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , the river itself rises and floods the fields; in Assyria, they are watered by hand and by swinging beams.

For the whole land of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , like Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , is cut across by canals. The greatest of these is navigable: it runs towards where the sun rises in winter, from the Euphrates [47.5,31.83] (river), Asia Euphrates to another river, the Tigris [47.416,31] (river), Asia Tigris , on which stood the city of Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus . This land is by far the most fertile in grain which we know.

It does not even try to bear trees, fig, vine, or olive, but Demeter's grain is so abundant there that it yields for the most part two hundred fold, and even three hundred fold when the harvest is best. The blades of the wheat and barley there are easily four fingers broad;

and for millet and sesame, I will not say to what height they grow, though it is known to me; for I am well aware that even what I have said regarding grain is wholly disbelieved by those who have never visited Babylonia (region (general)), Iraq, Asia Babylonia . They use no oil except what they make from sesame. There are palm trees there growing all over the plain, most of them yielding fruit, from which food is made and wine and honey.

The Assyrians tend these like figs, and chiefly in this respect, that they tie the fruit of the palm called male by the Greeks to the date-bearing palm, so that the gall-fly may enter the dates and cause them to ripen, and that the fruit of the palm may not fall; for the male palms, like unripened figs, have gall-flies in their fruit.

I am going to indicate what seems to me to be the most marvellous thing in the country, next to the city itself. Their boats which ply the river and go to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon are all of skins, and round.

They make these in Armenia (region (general)), Asia Armenia , higher up the stream than Assyria. First they cut frames of willow, then they stretch hides over these for a covering, making as it were a hold; they neither broaden the stern nor narrow the prow, but the boat is round, like a shield. They then fill it with reeds and send it floating down the river with a cargo; and it is for the most part palm wood casks of wine that they carry down.

Two men standing upright steer the boat, each with a paddle, one drawing it to him, the other thrusting it from him. These boats are of all sizes, some small, some very large; the largest of them are of as much as five thousand talents burden. There is a live ass in each boat, or more than one in the larger.

So when they have floated down to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon and disposed of their cargo, they sell the framework of the boat and all the reeds; the hides are set on the backs of asses, which are then driven back to Armenia (region (general)), Asia Armenia ,

for it is not by any means possible to go upstream by water, because of the swiftness of the current; it is for this reason that they make their boats of hides and not of wood. When they have driven their asses back into Armenia (region (general)), Asia Armenia , they make more boats in the same way.

Such then are their boats. For clothing, they wear a linen tunic, reaching to the feet; over this the Babylonian puts on another tunic, of wool, and wraps himself in a white mantle; he wears the shoes of his country, which are like Boeotian sandals. Their hair is worn long, and covered by caps; the whole body is perfumed.

Every man has a seal and a carved staff, and on every staff is some image, such as that of an apple or a rose or a lily or an eagle: no one carries a staff without an image.

This is the equipment of their persons. I will now speak of their established customs. The wisest of these, in our judgment, is one which I have learned by inquiry is also a custom of the Eneti in Illyria (region (general)), Europe Illyria . It is this: once a year in every village all the maidens as they attained marriageable age were collected and brought together into one place, with a crowd of men standing around.

Then a crier would display and offer them for sale one by one, first the fairest of all; and then, when she had fetched a great price, he put up for sale the next most attractive, selling all the maidens as lawful wives. Rich men of Assyria who desired to marry would outbid each other for the fairest; the ordinary people, who desired to marry and had no use for beauty, could take the ugly ones and money besides;

for when the crier had sold all the most attractive, he would put up the one that was least beautiful, or crippled, and offer her to whoever would take her to wife for the least amount, until she fell to one who promised to accept least; the money came from the sale of the attractive ones, who thus paid the dowry of the ugly and the crippled. But a man could not give his daughter in marriage to whomever he liked, nor could one that bought a girl take her away without giving security that he would in fact make her his wife.

And if the couple could not agree, it was a law that the money be returned. Men might also come from other villages to buy if they so desired.

This, then, was their best custom; but it does not continue at this time; they have invented a new one lately [so that the women not be wronged or taken to another city]; since the conquest of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon made them afflicted and poor, everyone of the people that lacks a livelihood prostitutes his daughters.

I come now to the next wisest of their customs: having no use for physicians, they carry the sick into the market-place; then those who have been afflicted themselves by the same illness as the sick man's, or seen others in like case, come near and advise him about his disease and comfort him, telling him by what means they have themselves recovered from it or seen others recover. No one may pass by the sick man without speaking and asking after his sickness.

The dead are embalmed in honey for burial, and their dirges are like the dirges of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Whenever a Babylonian has had intercourse with his wife, they both sit before a burnt offering of incense, and at dawn they wash themselves; they will touch no vessel before this is done. This is the custom in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia also.

The foulest Babylonian custom is that which compels every woman of the land to sit in the temple of Aphrodite and have intercourse with some stranger once in her life. Many women who are rich and proud and disdain to mingle with the rest, drive to the temple in covered carriages drawn by teams, and stand there with a great retinue of attendants.

But most sit down in the sacred plot of Aphrodite, with crowns of cord on their heads; there is a great multitude of women coming and going; passages marked by line run every way through the crowd, by which the men pass and make their choice.

Once a woman has taken her place there, she does not go away to her home before some stranger has cast money into her lap, and had intercourse with her outside the temple; but while he casts the money, he must say, “I invite you in the name of Mylitta” (that is the Assyrian name for Aphrodite).

It does not matter what sum the money is; the woman will never refuse, for that would be a sin, the money being by this act made sacred. So she follows the first man who casts it and rejects no one. After their intercourse, having discharged her sacred duty to the goddess, she goes away to her home; and thereafter there is no bribe however great that will get her.

So then the women that are fair and tall are soon free to depart, but the uncomely have long to wait because they cannot fulfill the law; for some of them remain for three years, or four. There is a custom like this in some parts of Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus .

These are established customs among the Babylonians. Furthermore, there are three tribes in the country that eat nothing but fish, which they catch and dry in the sun; then, after throwing it into a mortar, they pound it with pestles and strain everything through linen. Then whoever desires kneads as it were a cake of it and eats it; others bake it like bread.

When Cyrus had conquered this nation, too, he wanted to subject the Massagetae. These are said to be a great and powerful people dwelling towards the east and the sunrise, beyond the Araxes and opposite the Issedones; and some say that they are a Scythian people.

The Araxes is said by some to be greater and by some to be less than the Ister. It is reported that there are many islands in it as big as Lesbos [26.333,39.166] (island), Lesvos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Lesbos , and men on them who in summer live on roots of all kinds that they dig up, and in winter on fruit that they have got from trees when it was ripe and stored for food;

and they know (it is said) of trees bearing a fruit whose effect is this: gathering in groups and kindling a fire, the people sit around it and throw the fruit into the flames; then the fumes of it as it burns make them drunk as the Greeks are with wine, and more and more drunk as more fruit is thrown on the fire, until at last they rise up to dance and even sing. Such is said to be their way of life.

The Araxes flows from the country of the Matieni (as does the Gyndes, which Cyrus divided into the three hundred and sixty channels) and empties itself through forty mouths, of which all except one issue into bogs and swamps, where men are said to live whose food is raw fish, and their customary dress sealskins.

The one remaining stream of the Araxes flows in a clear channel into the Caspian Sea [51,39] (sea) Caspian sea .This is a sea by itself, not joined to the other sea. For that on which the Greeks sail, and the sea beyond the pillars of Heracles, which they call Atlantic Ocean [-40.000,1.000] (ocean) Atlantic , and the Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea , are all one:

but the Caspian is separate and by itself. Its length is what a ship rowed by oars can traverse in fifteen days, and its breadth, where it is broadest, is an eight days' journey. Along its western shore stretches the range of Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia Caucasus , which has more and higher peaks than any other range. Many and all kinds of nations dwell in the Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia Caucasus , and the most of them live on the fruits of the forest.

Here, it is said, are trees growing leaves that men crush and mix with water and use for painting figures on their clothing; these figures cannot be washed out, but last as long as the wool, as if they had been woven into it from the first. Men and women here (they say) have intercourse openly, like beasts of the flock.

This sea called Caspian is hemmed in to the west by the Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia Caucasus : towards the east and the sunrise there stretches from its shores a boundless plain as far as the eye can see. The greater part of this wide plain is the country of the Massagetae, against whom Cyrus was eager to lead his army.

For there were many weighty reasons that impelled and encouraged him to do so: first, his birth, because of which he seemed to be something more than mortal; and next, his victories in his wars: for no nation that Cyrus undertook to attack could escape from him.

Now at this time the Massagetae were ruled by a queen called Tomyris, whose husband was dead. Cyrus sent a message with a pretence of wanting her for his wife, but Tomyris would have none of his advances, well understanding that he wanted not her but the kingdom of the Massagetae.

So when guile was of no avail, Cyrus marched to the Araxes and openly prepared to attack the Massagetae; he bridged the river for his army to cross, and built towers on the pontoons bridging the river.

But while he was busy at this, Tomyris sent a herald to him with this message: “O king of the Medes, stop hurrying on what you are hurrying on, for you cannot know whether the completion of this work will be for your advantage. Stop, and be king of your own country; and endure seeing us ruling those whom we rule.

But if you will not take this advice, and will do anything rather than remain at peace, then if you so greatly desire to try the strength of the Massagetae, stop your present work of bridging the river, and let us withdraw three days' journey from the Araxes; and when that is done, cross into our country.

Or if you prefer to receive us into your country, then withdraw yourself as I have said.” Hearing this, Cyrus called together the leading Persians and laid the matter before them, asking them to advise him which he should do. They all spoke to the same end, urging him to let Tomyris and her army enter his country.

But Croesus the Lydian, who was present, was displeased by their advice and spoke against it. “O King,” he said, “you have before now heard from me that since Zeus has given me to you I will turn aside to the best of my ability whatever misadventure I see threatening your house. And disaster has been my teacher.

Now, if you think that you and the army that you lead are immortal, I have no business giving you advice; but if you know that you and those whom you rule are only men, then I must first teach you this: men's fortunes are on a wheel, which in its turning does not allow the same man to prosper forever.

So, if that is the case, I am not of the same opinion about the business in hand as these other counsellors of yours. This is the danger if we agree to let the enemy enter your country: if you lose the battle, you lose your empire also, for it is plain that if the Massagetae win they will not retreat but will march against your provinces.

And if you conquer them, it is a lesser victory than if you crossed into their country and routed the Massagetae and pursued them; for I weigh your chances against theirs, and suppose that when you have beaten your adversaries you will march for the seat of Tomyris' power.

And besides what I have shown, it would be a shameful thing and not to be endured if Cyrus the son of Cambyses should yield and give ground before a woman. Now then, it occurs to me that we should cross and go forward as far as they draw back, and that then we should endeavor to overcome them by doing as I shall show.

As I understand, the Massagetae have no experience of the good things of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , and have never fared well as to what is greatly desirable. Therefore, I advise you to cut up the meat of many of your sheep and goats into generous portions for these men, and to cook it and serve it as a feast in our camp, providing many bowls of unmixed wine and all kinds of food.

Then let your army withdraw to the river again, leaving behind that part of it which is of least value. For if I am not mistaken in my judgment, when the Massagetae see so many good things they will give themselves over to feasting on them; and it will be up to us then to accomplish great things.”

So these opinions clashed; and Cyrus set aside his former plan and chose that of Croesus; consequently, he told Tomyris to draw her army off, for he would cross (he said) and attack her; so she withdrew as she had promised before. Then he entrusted Croesus to the care of his own son Cambyses, to whom he would leave his sovereignty, telling Cambyses to honor Croesus and treat him well if the crossing of the river against the Massagetae should not go well. With these instructions, he sent the two back to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , and he and his army crossed the river.

After he had crossed the Araxes, he dreamed that night while sleeping in the country of the Massagetae that he saw the eldest of Hystapes' sons with wings on his shoulders, the one wing overshadowing Asia (continent) Asia and the other Europe (continent) Europe .

Hystaspes son of Arsames was an Achaemenid, and Darius was the eldest of his sons, then about twenty years old; this Darius had been left behind in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , not yet being of an age to go on campaign.

So when Cyrus awoke he considered his vision, and because it seemed to him to be of great importance, he sent for Hystaspes and said to him privately, “Hystaspes, I have caught your son plotting against me and my sovereignty; and I will tell you how I know this for certain.

The gods care for me and show me beforehand all that is coming. Now then, I have seen in a dream in the past night your eldest son with wings on his shoulders, overshadowing Asia (continent) Asia with the one and Europe (continent) Europe with the other.

From this vision, there is no way that he is not plotting against me. Therefore hurry back to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , and see that when I come back after subjecting this country you bring your son before me to be questioned about this.”

Cyrus said this, thinking that Darius was plotting against him; but in fact, heaven was showing him that he himself was to die in the land where he was and Darius inherit his kingdom.

So then Hystaspes replied with this: “O King, may there not be any Persian born who would plot against you! But if there is, may he perish suddenly; for you have made the Persians free men instead of slaves and rulers of all instead of subjects of any.

But if your vision does indeed signify that my son is planning revolution, I give him to you to treat as you like.”

After having given this answer and crossed the Araxes, Hystaspes went to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia to watch his son for Cyrus; and Cyrus, advancing a day's journey from the Araxes, acted according to Croesus' advice.

Cyrus and the sound portion of the Persian army marched back to the Araxes, leaving behind those that were useless; a third of the Massagetae forces attacked those of the army who were left behind and destroyed them despite resistance; then, when they had overcome their enemies, seeing the banquet spread they sat down and feasted, and after they had had their fill of food and wine, they fell asleep.

Then the Persians attacked them, killing many and taking many more alive, among whom was the son of Tomyris the queen, Spargapises by name, the leader of the Massagetae.

When Tomyris heard what had happened to her army and her son, she sent a herald to Cyrus with this message:

“Cyrus who can never get enough blood, do not be elated by what you have done; it is nothing to be proud of if, by the fruit of the vine—with which you Persians fill yourselves and rage so violently that evil words rise in a flood to your lips when the wine enters your bodies—if, by tricking him with this drug, you got the better of my son, and not by force of arms in battle.

Now, then, take a word of good advice from me: give me back my son and leave this country unpunished, even though you have savaged a third of the Massagetae army. But if you will not, then I swear to you by the sun, lord of the Massagetae, that I shall give even you who can never get enough of it your fill of blood.”

Cyrus dismissed this warning when it was repeated to him. But Spargapises, the son of the queen Tomyris, after the wine wore off and he recognized his evil plight, asked Cyrus to be freed from his bonds; and this was granted him; but as soon as he was freed and had the use of his hands, he did away with himself.

Such was the end of Spargapises. Tomyris, when Cyrus would not listen to her, collected all her forces and engaged him. This fight I judge to have been the fiercest ever fought by men that were not Greek; and indeed I have learned that this was so.

For first (it is said) they shot arrows at each other from a distance; then, when their arrows were all spent, they rushed at each other and fought with their spears and swords; and for a long time they stood fighting and neither would give ground; but at last the Massagetae got the upper hand.

The greater part of the Persian army was destroyed there on the spot, and Cyrus himself fell there, after having reigned for one year short of thirty years.

Tomyris filled a skin with human blood, and searched among the Persian dead for Cyrus' body; and when she found it, she pushed his head into the skin, and insulted the dead man in these words:

“Though I am alive and have defeated you in battle, you have destroyed me, taking my son by guile; but just as I threatened, I give you your fill of blood.” Many stories are told of Cyrus' death; this, that I have told, is the most credible.

These Massagetae are like the Scythians in their dress and way of life. They are both cavalry and infantry (having some of each kind), and spearmen and archers; and it is their custom to carry battle-axes. They always use gold and bronze; all their spear-points and arrow-heads and battle-axes are bronze and the adornment of their headgear and belts and girdles is gold.

They equip their horses similarly, protecting their chests with bronze breastplates and putting gold on reins, bits, and cheekplates. But they never use iron and silver, for there is none at all in their country, but gold and bronze abound.

Now for their customs: each man marries a wife, but the wives are common to all. The Greeks say this is a Scythian custom; it is not, but a custom of the Massagetae. There, when a man desires a woman, he hangs his quiver before her wagon, and has intercourse with her without fear.

Though they fix no certain term to life, yet when a man is very old all his family meet together and kill him, with beasts of the flock besides, then boil the flesh and feast on it.

This is held to be the happiest death; when a man dies of an illness, they do not eat him, but bury him in the earth, and lament that he did not live to be killed. They never plant seed; their fare is their livestock and the fish which they take in abundance from the Araxes.

Their drink is milk. The sun is the only god whom they worship; they sacrifice horses to him; the reasoning is that he is the swiftest of the gods, and therefore they give him the swiftest of mortal things.

After the death of Cyrus, Cambyses inherited his throne. He was the son of Cyrus and of Cassandane, the daughter of Pharnaspes, for whom Cyrus mourned deeply when she died before him, and had all his subjects mourn also.

Cambyses was the son of this woman and of Cyrus. He considered the Ionians and Aeolians slaves inherited from his father, and prepared an expedition against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , taking with him some of these Greek subjects besides others whom he ruled.

Now before Psammetichus became king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , the Egyptians believed that they were the oldest people on earth. But ever since Psammetichus became king and wished to find out which people were the oldest, they have believed that the Phrygians were older than they, and they than everybody else.

Psammetichus, when he was in no way able to learn by inquiry which people had first come into being, devised a plan by which he took two newborn children of the common people and gave them to a shepherd to bring up among his flocks. He gave instructions that no one was to speak a word in their hearing; they were to stay by themselves in a lonely hut, and in due time the shepherd was to bring goats and give the children their milk and do everything else necessary.

Psammetichus did this, and gave these instructions, because he wanted to hear what speech would first come from the children, when they were past the age of indistinct babbling. And he had his wish; for one day, when the shepherd had done as he was told for two years, both children ran to him stretching out their hands and calling “Bekos!” as he opened the door and entered.

When he first heard this, he kept quiet about it; but when, coming often and paying careful attention, he kept hearing this same word, he told his master at last and brought the children into the king's presence as required. Psammetichus then heard them himself, and asked to what language the word “Bekos” belonged; he found it to be a Phrygian word, signifying bread.

Reasoning from this, the Egyptians acknowledged that the Phrygians were older than they. This is the story which I heard from the priests of Hephaestus' temple at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis ; the Greeks say among many foolish things that Psammetichus had the children reared by women whose tongues he had cut out.

Besides this story of the rearing of the children, I also heard other things at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis in conversation with the priests of Hephaestus; and I visited Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes and Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis , too, for this very purpose, because I wished to know if the people of those places would tell me the same story as the priests at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis ; for the people of Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis are said to be the most learned of the Egyptians.

Now, such stories as I heard about the gods I am not ready to relate, except their names, for I believe that all men are equally knowledgeable about them; and I shall say about them what I am constrained to say by the course of my history.

But as to human affairs, this was the account in which they all agreed: the Egyptians, they said, were the first men who reckoned by years and made the year consist of twelve divisions of the seasons. They discovered this from the stars (so they said). And their reckoning is, to my mind, a juster one than that of the Greeks; for the Greeks add an intercalary month every other year, so that the seasons agree; but the Egyptians, reckoning thirty days to each of the twelve months, add five days in every year over and above the total, and thus the completed circle of seasons is made to agree with the calendar.

Furthermore, the Egyptians (they said) first used the names of twelve gods (which the Greeks afterwards borrowed from them); and it was they who first assigned to the several gods their altars and images and temples, and first carved figures on stone. Most of this they showed me in fact to be the case. The first human king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , they said, was Min.

In his time all of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt except the Thebaic district was a marsh: all the country that we now see was then covered by water, north of Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa lake Moeris , which is seven days' journey up the river from the sea.

And I think that their account of the country was true. For even if a man has not heard it before, he can readily see, if he has sense, that that Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to which the Greeks sail is land deposited for the Egyptians, the river's gift—not only the lower country, but even the land as far as three days' voyage above the lake, which is of the same nature as the other, although the priests did not say this, too.

For this is the nature of the land of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt : in the first place, when you approach it from the sea and are still a day's sail from land, if you let down a sounding line you will bring up mud from a depth of eleven fathoms. This shows that the deposit from the land reaches this far.

Further, the length of the seacoast of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt itself is sixty “schoeni” —of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , that is, as we judge it to be, reaching from the Plinthinete gulf to the Serbonian marsh, which is under the Casian mountain—between these there is this length of sixty schoeni.

Men that have scant land measure by feet; those that have more, by miles; those that have much land, by parasangs; and those who have great abundance of it, by schoeni.

The parasang is three and three quarters miles, and the schoenus, which is an Egyptian measure, is twice that.

By this reckoning, then, the seaboard of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt will be four hundred and fifty miles in length. Inland from the sea as far as Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis , Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is a wide land, all flat and watery and marshy. From the sea up to Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis is a journey about as long as the way from the altar of the twelve gods at Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens to the temple of Olympian Zeus at Pisa [21.65,37.65] (Perseus) Pisa .

If a reckoning is made, only a little difference of length, not more than two miles, will be found between these two journeys; for the journey from Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens to Pisa [21.65,37.65] (Perseus) Pisa is two miles short of two hundred, which is the number of miles between the sea and Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis .

Beyond and above Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis , Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is a narrow land. For it is bounded on the one side by the mountains of Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia , which run north to south, always running south towards the sea called the Red Sea . In these mountains are the quarries that were hewn out for making the pyramids at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis . This way, then, the mountains run, and end in the places of which I have spoken; their greatest width from east to west, as I learned by inquiry, is a two months' journey, and their easternmost boundaries yield frankincense.

Such are these mountains. On the side of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is bounded by another range of rocky mountains among which are the pyramids; these are all covered with sand, and run in the same direction as those Arabian hills that run southward.

Beyond Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis , there is no great distance—in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , that is: the narrow land has a length of only fourteen days' journey up the river. Between the aforesaid mountain ranges, the land is level, and where the plain is narrowest it seemed to me that there were no more than thirty miles between the Arabian mountains and those that are called Libyan. Beyond this Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is a wide land again. Such is the nature of this country.

From Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis to Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes is nine days' journey by river, and the distance is six hundred and eight miles, or eighty-one schoeni.

This, then, is a full statement of all the distances in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt : the seaboard is four hundred and fifty miles long; and I will now declare the distance inland from the sea to Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes : it is seven hundred and sixty-five miles. And between Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes and the city called Elephantine there are two hundred and twenty-five miles.

The greater portion, then, of this country of which I have spoken was land deposited for the Egyptians as the priests told me, and I myself formed the same judgment; all that lies between the ranges of mountains above Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis to which I have referred seemed to me to have once been a gulf of the sea, just as the country about Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Ilion and Teuthrania and Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Ephesus and the plain of the Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander , to compare these small things with great.

For of the rivers that brought down the stuff to make these lands, there is none worthy to be compared for greatness with even one of the mouths of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , and the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile has five mouths.

There are also other rivers, not so great as the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , that have had great effects; I could rehearse their names, but principal among them is the Achelous, which, flowing through Akarnania (region (general)), Aitolia and Akarnania, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Acarnania and emptying into the sea, has already made half of the Echinades Islands mainland.

Now in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia , not far from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , there is a gulf extending inland from the sea called Red , whose length and width are such as I shall show:

in length, from its inner end out to the wide sea, it is a forty days' voyage for a ship rowed by oars; and in breadth, it is half a day's voyage at the widest. Every day the tides ebb and flow in it.

I believe that where Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is now, there was once another such gulf; this extended from the northern sea towards Aethiopia, and the other, the Arabian gulf of which I shall speak, extended from the south towards Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria ; the ends of these gulfs penetrated into the country near each other, and but a little space of land separated them.

Now, if the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile inclined to direct its current into this Arabian gulf, why should the latter not be silted up by it inside of twenty thousand years? In fact, I expect that it would be silted up inside of ten thousand years. Is it to be doubted, then, that in the ages before my birth a gulf even much greater than this should have been silted up by a river so great and so busy?

As for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , then, I credit those who say it, and myself very much believe it to be the case; for I have seen that Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt projects into the sea beyond the neighboring land, and shells are exposed to view on the mountains, and things are coated with salt, so that even the pyramids show it, and the only sandy mountain in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is that which is above Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis ;

besides, Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is like neither the neighboring land of Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia nor Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , not even like Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria (for Syrians inhabit the seaboard of Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia ); it is a land of black and crumbling earth, as if it were alluvial deposit carried down the river from Aethiopia;

but we know that the soil of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya is redder and somewhat sandy, and Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia and Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria are lands of clay and stones.

This, too, that the priests told me about Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , is a strong proof: when Moeris was king, if the river rose as much as thirteen feet, it watered all of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt below Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis . Moeris had not been dead nine hundred years when I heard this from the priests. But now, if the river does not rise at least twenty-six or twenty-five feet, the land is not flooded.

And, in my opinion, the Egyptians who inhabit the lands lower down the river than Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa lake Moeris , and especially what is called the Delta—if this land of theirs rises in the same proportion and broadens likewise in extent, and the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile no longer floods it—will forever after be in the same straits as they themselves once said the Greeks would be;

for, learning that all the Greek land is watered by rain, but not by river water like theirs, they said that one day the Greeks would be let down by what they counted on, and miserably starve: meaning that, if heaven send no rain for the Greeks and afflict them with drought, the Greeks will be overtaken by famine, for there is no other source of water for them except Zeus alone.

And this prediction of the Egyptians about the Greeks was true enough. But now let me show the prospect for the Egyptians themselves: if, as I have already said, the country below Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis (for it is this which rises) should increase in height in the same proportion as formerly, will not the Egyptians who inhabit it go hungry, as there is no rain in their country and the river will be unable to inundate their fields?

At present, of course, there are no people, either in the rest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt or in the whole world, who live from the soil with so little labor; they do not have to break the land up with the plough, or hoe, or do any other work that other men do to get a crop; the river rises of itself, waters the fields, and then sinks back again; then each man sows his field and sends swine into it to tread down the seed, and waits for the harvest; then he has the swine thresh his grain, and so garners it.

Now if we agree with the opinion of the Ionians, who say that only the Delta is Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and that its seaboard reaches from the so-called Watchtower of Perseus forty schoeni to the Salters' at Pelusium (deserted settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert, Egypt, Africa Pelusium , while inland it stretches as far as the city of Cercasorus, where the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile divides and flows to Pelusium (deserted settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert, Egypt, Africa Pelusium and Canopus [30.5,31.316] (deserted settlement), Al-Iskandariyah, Urban, Egypt, Africa Canobus , and that all the rest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is partly Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya and partly Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia —if we follow this account, we can show that there was once no land for the Egyptians;

for we have seen that (as the Egyptians themselves say, and as I myself judge) the Delta is alluvial land and but lately (so to speak) came into being. Then if there was once no land for them, it was an idle notion that they were the oldest nation on earth, and they need not have made that trial to see what language the children would first speak.

I maintain, rather, that the Egyptians did not come into existence together with what the Ionians call the Delta, but have existed since the human race came into being; and as the land grew in extent, there were many of them who stayed behind, and many who spread down over it. Be that as it may, the Theban district, a land of seven hundred and sixty-five miles in circumference, was in the past called Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

If, then, our judgment of this is right, the Ionians are in error concerning Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; but if their opinion is right, then it is plain that they and the rest of the Greeks cannot reckon truly, when they divide the whole earth into three parts, Europe (continent) Europe , Asia (continent) Asia , and Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya ;

they must add to these a fourth part, the Delta of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , if it belongs neither to Asia (continent) Asia nor to Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya ; for by their showing the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile is not the river that separates Asia (continent) Asia and Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya ; the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile divides at the apex of this Delta, so that this land must be between Asia (continent) Asia and Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

We leave the Ionians' opinion aside, and our own judgment about the matter is this: Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is all that country which is inhabited by Egyptians, just as Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia and Assyria are the countries inhabited by Cilicians and Assyrians, and we know of no boundary line (rightly so called) below Asia (continent) Asia and Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya except the borders of the Egyptians.

But if we follow the belief of the Greeks, we shall consider all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt commencing from the Cataracts and the city of Elephantine to be divided into two parts, and to claim both the names, the one a part of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya and the other of Asia (continent) Asia .

For the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , beginning from the Cataracts, divides Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt into two parts as it flows to the sea. Now, as far as the city Cercasorus the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile flows in one channel, but after that it parts into three.

One of these, which is called the Pelusian mouth, flows east; the second flows west, and is called the Canobic mouth. But the direct channel of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , when the river in its downward course reaches the apex of the Delta, flows thereafter clean through the middle of the Delta into the sea; in this is seen the greatest and most famous part of its waters, and it is called the Sebennytic mouth.

There are also two channels which separate themselves from the Sebennytic and so flow into the sea: by name, the Saïtic and the Mendesian.

The Bolbitine and Bucolic mouths are not natural but excavated channels.

The response of oracle of Ammon in fact bears witness to my opinion, that Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is of such an extent as I have argued; I learned this by inquiry after my judgment was already formed about Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

The men of the cities of Marea and Apis, in the part of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt bordering on Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , believing themselves to be Libyans and not Egyptians, and disliking the injunction of the religious law that forbade them to eat cows' meat, sent to Ammon saying that they had no part of or lot with Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt : for they lived (they said) outside the Delta and did not consent to the ways of its people, and they wished to be allowed to eat all foods.

But the god forbade them: all the land, he said, watered by the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile in its course was Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and all who lived lower down than the city Elephantine and drank the river's water were Egyptians. Such was the oracle given to them.

When the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile is in flood, it overflows not only the Delta but also the lands called Libyan and Arabian, as far as two days' journey from either bank in places, and sometimes more than this, sometimes less. Concerning its nature, I could not learn anything either from the priests or from any others.

Yet I was anxious to learn from them why the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile comes down with a rising flood for a hundred days from the summer solstice; and when this number of days is passed, sinks again with a diminishing stream, so that the river is low for the whole winter until the summer solstice again.

I was not able to get any information from any of the Egyptians regarding this, when I asked them what power the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile has to be contrary in nature to all other rivers. I wished to know this, and asked; also, why no breezes blew from it as from every other river.

But some of the Greeks, wishing to be notable for cleverness, put forward three opinions about this river, two of which I would not even mention except just to show what they are.

One of them maintains that the Etesian winds are the cause of the river being in flood, because they hinder the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile from emptying into the sea. But there are many times when the Etesian winds do not blow, yet the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile does the same as before.

And further, if the Etesian winds were the cause, then the other rivers which flow contrary to those winds should be affected like the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , and even more so, since being smaller they have a weaker current. Yet there are many rivers in Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria and many in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , and they behave nothing like the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile .

The second opinion is less grounded on knowledge than the previous, though it is more marvellous to the ear: according to it, the river effects what it does because it flows from Ocean, which flows around the whole world.

The third opinion is by far the most plausible, yet the most erroneous of all. It has no more truth in it than the others. According to this, the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile flows from where snows melt; but it flows from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya through the midst of Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia , and comes out into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

How can it flow from snow, then, seeing that it comes from the hottest places to lands that are for the most part cooler? In fact, for a man who can reason about such things, the principal and strongest evidence that the river is unlikely to flow from snows is that the winds blowing from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya and Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia are hot.

In the second place, the country is rainless and frostless; but after snow has fallen, it has to rain within five days ; so that if it snowed, it would rain in these lands. And thirdly, the men of the country are black because of the heat.

Moreover, kites and swallows live there all year round, and cranes come every year to these places to winter there, flying from the wintry weather of Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia . Now, were there but the least fall of snow in this country through which the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile flows and where it rises, none of these things would happen, as necessity proves.

The opinion about Ocean is grounded in obscurity and needs no disproof; for I know of no Ocean river; and I suppose that Homer or some older poet invented this name and brought it into his poetry.

If, after having condemned the opinions proposed, I must indicate what I myself think about these obscure matters, I shall say why I think the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile floods in the summer. During the winter, the sun is driven by storms from his customary course and passes over the inland parts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

For the briefest demonstration, everything has been said; for whatever country this god is nearest, or over, it is likely that that land is very thirsty for water and that the local rivers are dried up.

A lengthier demonstration goes as follows. In its passage over the inland parts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , the sun does this: as the air is always clear in that region, the land warm, and the winds cool, the sun does in its passage exactly as it would do in the summer passing through the middle of the heaven:

it draws the water to itself, and having done so, expels it away to the inland regions, and the winds catch it and scatter and dissolve it; and, as is to be expected, those that blow from that country, the south and the southwest, are the most rainy of all winds.

Yet I think that the sun never lets go of all of the water that it draws up from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile yearly, but keeps some back near itself. Then, as the winter becomes milder, the sun returns to the middle of the heaven, and after that draws from all rivers alike.

Meanwhile, the other rivers are swollen to high flood by the quantity of water that falls into them from the sky, because the country is rained on and cut into gullies; but in the summer they are low, lacking the rain and being drawn up too by the sun.

But the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , being fed by no rain, and being the only river drawn up by the sun in winter, at this time falls far short of the height that it had in summer; which is but natural; for in summer all other waters too and not it alone are attracted to the sun, but in the winter it alone is afflicted.

I am convinced, therefore, that the sun is the cause of this phenomenon. The dryness of the air in these parts is also caused by the sun, in my opinion, because it burns its way through it; hence, it is always summer in the inland part of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

But were the stations of the seasons changed, so that the south wind and the summer had their station where the north wind and winter are now set, and the north wind was where the south wind is now—if this were so, the sun, when driven from mid-heaven by the winter and the north wind, would pass over the inland parts of Europe (continent) Europe as it now passes over Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , and I think that in its passage over all Europe (continent) Europe it would have the same effect on the Ister as it now does on the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile .

And as to why no breeze blows from the river, this is my opinion: it is not natural that any breeze blow from very hot places; breezes always come from that which is very cold.

Let this be, then, as it is and as it was in the beginning. But as to the sources of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , no one that conversed with me, Egyptian, Libyan, or Greek, professed to know them, except the recorder of the sacred treasures of Athena in the Egyptian city of Saïs.

I thought he was joking when he said that he had exact knowledge, but this was his story. Between the city of Aswan [32.933,24.83] (inhabited place), Aswan, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Syene in the Thebaid (region (general)), Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebaid and Elephantine, there are two hills with sharp peaks, one called Crophi and the other Mophi.

The springs of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , which are bottomless, rise between these hills; half the water flows north towards Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and the other half south towards Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia .

He said that Psammetichus king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt had put to the test whether the springs are bottomless: for he had a rope of many thousand fathoms' length woven and let down into the spring, but he could not reach to the bottom.

This recorder, then, if he spoke the truth, showed, I think, that there are strong eddies and an upward flow of water, such that with the stream rushing against the hills the sounding-line when let down cannot reach bottom.

I was unable to learn anything from anyone else, but this much further I did learn by the most extensive investigation that I could make, going as far as the city of Elephantine to look myself, and beyond that by question and hearsay.

Beyond Elephantine, as one travels inland, the land rises. Here one must pass with the boat roped on both sides as men harness an ox; and if the rope breaks, the boat will be carried away by the strength of the current.

This part of the river is a four days' journey by boat, and the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile here is twisty just as the Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander ; a distance of twelve schoeni must be passed in the foregoing manner. After that, you come to a level plain, where there is an island in the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , called Takhompso.

The country above Elephantine now begins to be inhabited by Ethiopians: half the people of the island are Ethiopians, and half Egyptians. Near the island is a great lake, on whose shores live nomadic Ethiopians. After crossing this, you come to the stream of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , which empties into this lake.

Then you disembark and journey along the river bank for forty days; for there are sharp projecting rocks in the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile and many reefs, through which no boat can pass.

Having traversed this part in forty days as I have said, you take boat again and so travel for twelve days until you come to a great city called Meroe [33.716,16.933] (deserted settlement), Nile, Ash-Shamaliyah, Sudan, Africa Meroe , which is said to be the capital of all Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia .

The people of the place worship no other gods but Zeus and Dionysus; these they greatly honor, and they have a place of divination sacred to Zeus; they send out armies whenever and wherever this god through his oracle commands them.

From this city you make a journey by water equal in distance to that by which you came from Elephantine to the capital city of Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia , and you come to the land of the Deserters. These Deserters are called Asmakh, which translates, in Greek, as “those who stand on the left hand of the king”.

These once revolted and joined themselves to the Ethiopians, two hundred and forty thousand Egyptians of fighting age. The reason was as follows. In the reign of Psammetichus, there were watchposts at Elephantine facing Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia , at Daphnae [32.183,30.866] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Daphnae of Pelusium (deserted settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert, Egypt, Africa Pelusium facing Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia and Assyria, and at Marea facing Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya .

And still in my time the Persians hold these posts as they were held in the days of Psammetichus; there are Persian guards at Elephantine and at Daphnae [32.183,30.866] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Daphnae . Now the Egyptians had been on guard for three years, and no one came to relieve them; so, organizing and making common cause, they revolted from Psammetichus and went to Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia .

Psammetichus heard of it and pursued them; and when he overtook them, he asked them in a long speech not to desert their children and wives and the gods of their fathers. Then one of them, the story goes, pointed to his genitals and said that wherever that was, they would have wives and children.

So they came to Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia , and gave themselves up to the king of the country; who, to make them a gift in return, told them to dispossess certain Ethiopians with whom he was feuding, and occupy their land. These Ethiopians then learned Egyptian customs and have become milder-mannered by intermixture with the Egyptians.

To a distance of four months' travel by land and water, then, there is knowledge of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , besides the part of it that is in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . So many months, as reckoning shows, are found to be spent by one going from Elephantine to the country of the Deserters. The river flows from the west and the sun's setting. Beyond this, no one has clear information to declare; for all that country is desolate because of the heat.

But I heard this from some men of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene , who told me that they had gone to the oracle of Ammon, and conversed there with Etearchus king of the Ammonians, and that from other subjects the conversation turned to the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , how no one knows the source of it. Then Etearchus told them that once he had been visited by some Nasamonians.

These are a Libyan people, inhabiting the country of the Golfe de Gabes [10.417,34.000] (gulf), Tunis, Africa Syrtis and a little way to the east of the Golfe de Gabes [10.417,34.000] (gulf), Tunis, Africa Syrtis .

When these Nasamonians were asked on their arrival if they brought any news concerning the Libyan desert, they told Etearchus that some sons of their leading men, proud and violent youths, when they came to manhood, besides planning other wild adventures, had chosen by lot five of their company to visit the deserts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya and see whether they could see any farther than those who had seen the farthest.

It must be known that the whole northern seacoast of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt as far as the promontory of +Soloeis [13.5167,38.0833] (Perseus) Soloeis , which is the end of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , is inhabited throughout its length by Libyans, many tribes of them, except the part held by Greeks and Phoenicians; the region of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya that is above the sea and the inhabitants of the coast is infested by wild beasts; and farther inland than the wild-beast country everything is sand, waterless and desolate.

When the young men left their companions, being well supplied with water and provisions, they journeyed first through the inhabited country, and after passing this they came to the region of wild beasts.

After this, they travelled over the desert, towards the west, and crossed a wide sandy region, until after many days they saw trees growing in a plain; when they came to these and were picking the fruit of the trees, they were met by little men of less than common stature, who took them and led them away. The Nasamonians did not know these men's language nor did the escort know the language of the Nasamonians.

The men led them across great marshes, after crossing which they came to a city where all the people were of a stature like that of the guides, and black. A great river ran past this city, from the west towards the rising sun; crocodiles could be seen in it.

This is enough of the story told by Etearchus the Ammonian; except he said that the Nasamonians returned, as the men of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene told me, and that the people to whose country they came were all wizards;

as to the river that ran past the city, Etearchus guessed it to be the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile ; and reason proves as much. For the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile flows from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , right through the middle of it; and as I guess, reasoning about things unknown from visible signs, it rises proportionally as far away as does the Ister.

For the Ister flows from the land of the Celts and the city of Pyrene through the very middle of Europe (continent) Europe ; now the Celts live beyond the Pillars of Heracles, being neighbors of the Cynesii, who are the westernmost of all the peoples inhabiting Europe (continent) Europe .

The Ister, then, flows clean across Europe (continent) Europe and ends its course in the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine sea , at +Istra [14,45.25] (region (general)), Croatia, Europe Istria , which is inhabited by Milesian colonists.

The Ister, since it flows through inhabited country, is known from many reports; but no one can speak of the source of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile ; for Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , though which it runs, is uninhabited and desert. Regarding its course, I have related everything that I could learn by inquiry; and it issues into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Now Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt lies about opposite to the mountainous part of Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia ;

from there, it is a straight five days' journey for an unencumbered man to +Sinope [35.15,42.0167] (Perseus) Sinope on the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine ; and +Sinope [35.15,42.0167] (Perseus) Sinope lies opposite the place where the Ister falls into the sea. Thus I suppose the course of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile in its passage through Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya to be like the course of the Ister.

It is sufficient to say this much concerning the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile . But concerning Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , I am going to speak at length, because it has the most wonders, and everywhere presents works beyond description; therefore, I shall say the more concerning Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Just as the Egyptians have a climate peculiar to themselves, and their river is different in its nature from all other rivers, so, too, have they instituted customs and laws contrary for the most part to those of the rest of mankind. Among them, the women buy and sell, the men stay at home and weave; and whereas in weaving all others push the woof upwards, the Egyptians push it downwards.

Men carry burdens on their heads, women on their shoulders. Women pass water standing, men sitting. They ease their bowels indoors, and eat out of doors in the streets, explaining that things unseemly but necessary should be done alone in private, things not unseemly should be done openly.

No woman is dedicated to the service of any god or goddess; men are dedicated to all deities male or female. Sons are not compelled against their will to support their parents, but daughters must do so though they be unwilling.

Everywhere else, priests of the gods wear their hair long; in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , they are shaven. For all other men, the rule in mourning for the dead is that those most nearly concerned have their heads shaven; Egyptians are shaven at other times, but after a death they let their hair and beard grow.

The Egyptians are the only people who keep their animals with them in the house. Whereas all others live on wheat and barley, it is the greatest disgrace for an Egyptian to live so; they make food from a coarse grain which some call spelt.

They knead dough with their feet, and gather mud and dung with their hands. The Egyptians and those who have learned it from them are the only people who practise circumcision. Every man has two garments, every woman only one.

The rings and sheets of sails are made fast outside the boat elsewhere, but inside it in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . The Greeks write and calculate from left to right; the Egyptians do the opposite; yet they say that their way of writing is towards the right, and the Greek way towards the left. They employ two kinds of writing; one is called sacred, the other demotic.

They are religious beyond measure, more than any other people; and the following are among their customs. They drink from cups of bronze, which they clean out daily; this is done not by some but by all.

They are especially careful always to wear newly-washed linen. They practise circumcision for cleanliness' sake; for they would rather be clean than more becoming. Their priests shave the whole body every other day, so that no lice or anything else foul may infest them as they attend upon the gods.

The priests wear a single linen garment and sandals of papyrus: they may have no other kind of clothing or footwear. Twice a day and twice every night they wash in cold water. Their religious observances are, one may say, innumerable.

But also they receive many benefits: they do not consume or spend anything of their own; sacred food is cooked for them, beef and goose are brought in great abundance to each man every day, and wine of grapes is given to them, too. They may not eat fish.

The Egyptians sow no beans in their country; if any grow, they will not eat them either raw or cooked; the priests cannot endure even to see them, considering beans an unclean kind of legume. Many (not only one) are dedicated to the service of each god. One of these is the high priest; and when a high priest dies, his son succeeds to his office.

They believe that bulls belong to Epaphus, and for this reason scrutinize them as follows; if they see even one black hair on them, the bull is considered impure.

One of the priests, appointed to the task, examines the beast, making it stand and lie, and drawing out its tongue, to determine whether it is clean of the stated signs which I shall indicate hereafter. He looks also to the hairs of the tail, to see if they grow naturally.

If it is clean in all these respects, the priest marks it by wrapping papyrus around the horns, then smears it with sealing-earth and stamps it with his ring; and after this they lead the bull away. But the penalty is death for sacrificing a bull that the priest has not marked. Such is the manner of approving the beast; I will now describe how it is sacrificed.

After leading the marked beast to the altar where they will sacrifice it, they kindle a fire; then they pour wine on the altar over the victim and call upon the god; then they cut its throat, and having done so sever the head from the body.

They flay the carcass of the victim, then invoke many curses on its head, which they carry away. Where there is a market, and Greek traders in it, the head is taken to the market and sold; where there are no Greeks, it is thrown into the river.

The imprecation which they utter over the heads is that whatever ill threatens those who sacrifice, or the whole of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , fall upon that head.

In respect of the heads of sacrificed beasts and the libation of wine, the practice of all Egyptians is the same in all sacrifices; and from this ordinance no Egyptian will taste of the head of anything that had life.

But in regard to the disembowelling and burning of the victims, there is a different way for each sacrifice. I shall now, however, speak of that goddess whom they consider the greatest, and in whose honor they keep highest festival.

After praying in the foregoing way, they take the whole stomach out of the flayed bull, leaving the entrails and the fat in the carcass, and cut off the legs, the end of the loin, the shoulders, and the neck.

Having done this, they fill what remains of the carcass with pure bread, honey, raisins, figs, frankincense, myrrh, and other kinds of incense, and then burn it, pouring a lot of oil on it.

They fast before the sacrifice, and while it is burning, they all make lamentation; and when their lamentation is over, they set out a meal of what is left of the victim.

All Egyptians sacrifice unblemished bulls and bull-calves; they may not sacrifice cows: these are sacred to Isis.

For the images of Isis are in woman's form, horned like a cow, exactly as the Greeks picture Io, and cows are held by far the most sacred of all beasts of the herd by all Egyptians alike.

For this reason, no Egyptian man or woman will kiss a Greek man, or use a knife, or a spit, or a cauldron belonging to a Greek, or taste the flesh of an unblemished bull that has been cut up with a Greek knife.

Cattle that die are dealt with in the following way. Cows are cast into the river, bulls are buried by each city in its suburbs, with one or both horns uncovered for a sign; then, when the carcass is decomposed, and the time appointed is at hand, a boat comes to each city from the island called Prosopitis,

an island in the Delta, nine schoeni in circumference. There are many other towns on Prosopitis; the one from which the boats come to gather the bones of the bulls is called Atarbekhis; a temple of Aphrodite stands in it of great sanctity.

From this town many go out, some to one town and some to another, to dig up the bones, which they then carry away and all bury in one place. As they bury the cattle, so do they all other beasts at death. Such is their ordinance respecting these also; for they, too, may not be killed.

All that have a temple of Zeus of Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes or are of the Theban district sacrifice goats, but will not touch sheep.

For no gods are worshipped by all Egyptians in common except Isis and Osiris, who they say is Dionysus; these are worshipped by all alike. Those who have a temple of Mendes or are of the Mendesian district sacrifice sheep, but will not touch goats.

The Thebans, and those who by the Theban example will not touch sheep, give the following reason for their ordinance: they say that Heracles wanted very much to see Zeus and that Zeus did not want to be seen by him, but that finally, when Heracles prayed, Zeus contrived

to show himself displaying the head and wearing the fleece of a ram which he had flayed and beheaded. It is from this that the Egyptian images of Zeus have a ram's head; and in this, the Egyptians are imitated by the Ammonians, who are colonists from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia and speak a language compounded of the tongues of both countries.

It was from this, I think, that the Ammonians got their name, too; for the Egyptians call Zeus “Amon”. The Thebans, then, consider rams sacred for this reason, and do not sacrifice them.

But one day a year, at the festival of Zeus, they cut in pieces and flay a single ram and put the fleece on the image of Zeus, as in the story; then they bring an image of Heracles near it. Having done this, all that are at the temple mourn for the ram, and then bury it in a sacred coffin.

Concerning Heracles, I heard it said that he was one of the twelve gods. But nowhere in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt could I hear anything about the other Heracles, whom the Greeks know.

I have indeed a lot of other evidence that the name of Heracles did not come from Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , but from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas (and in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas to those Greeks who gave the name Heracles to the son of Amphitryon), besides this: that Amphitryon and Alcmene, the parents of this Heracles, were both Egyptian by descent ; and that the Egyptians deny knowing the names Poseidon and the Dioscuri, nor are these gods reckoned among the gods of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Yet if they got the name of any deity from the Greeks, of these not least but in particular would they preserve a recollection, if indeed they were already making sea voyages and some Greeks, too, were seafaring men, as I expect and judge; so that the names of these gods would have been even better known to the Egyptians than the name of Heracles.

But Heracles is a very ancient god in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; as the Egyptians themselves say, the change of the eight gods to the twelve, one of whom they acknowledge Heracles to be, was made seventeen thousand years before the reign of Amasis.

Moreover, wishing to get clear information about this matter where it was possible so to do, I took ship for +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Tyre in +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia , where I had learned by inquiry that there was a holy temple of Heracles.

There I saw it, richly equipped with many other offerings, besides two pillars, one of refined gold, one of emerald: a great pillar that shone at night; and in conversation with the priests, I asked how long it was since their temple was built.

I found that their account did not tally with the belief of the Greeks, either; for they said that the temple of the god was founded when Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Tyre first became a city, and that was two thousand three hundred years ago. At +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Tyre I saw yet another temple of the so-called Thasian Heracles.

Then I went to Thasos (island), Kavalla, Macedonia, Greece, Europe Thasos , too, where I found a temple of Heracles built by the Phoenicians, who made a settlement there when they voyaged in search of Europe (continent) Europe ; now they did so as much as five generations before the birth of Heracles the son of Amphitryon in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas .

Therefore, what I have discovered by inquiry plainly shows that Heracles is an ancient god. And furthermore, those Greeks, I think, are most in the right, who have established and practise two worships of Heracles, sacrificing to one Heracles as to an immortal, and calling him the Olympian, but to the other bringing offerings as to a dead hero.

And the Greeks say many other ill-considered things, too; among them, this is a silly story which they tell about Heracles: that when he came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , the Egyptians crowned him and led him out in a procession to sacrifice him to Zeus; and for a while (they say) he followed quietly, but when they started in on him at the altar, he resisted and killed them all.

Now it seems to me that by this story the Greeks show themselves altogether ignorant of the character and customs of the Egyptians; for how should they sacrifice men when they are forbidden to sacrifice even beasts, except swine and bulls and bull-calves, if they are unblemished, and geese?

And furthermore, as Heracles was alone, and, still, only a man, as they say, how is it natural that he should kill many myriads? In talking so much about this, may I keep the goodwill of gods and heroes!

This is why the Egyptians of whom I have spoken sacrifice no goats, male or female: the Mendesians reckon Pan among the eight gods who, they say, were before the twelve gods.

Now in their painting and sculpture, the image of Pan is made with the head and the legs of a goat, as among the Greeks; not that he is thought to be in fact such, or unlike other gods; but why they represent him so, I have no wish to say.

The Mendesians consider all goats sacred, the male even more than the female, and goatherds are held in special estimation: one he-goat is most sacred of all; when he dies, it is ordained that there should be great mourning in all the Mendesian district.

In the Egyptian language Mendes is the name both for the he-goat and for Pan. In my lifetime a strange thing occurred in this district: a he-goat had intercourse openly with a woman. This came to be publicly known.

Swine are held by the Egyptians to be unclean beasts. In the first place, if an Egyptian touches a hog in passing, he goes to the river and dips himself in it, clothed as he is; and in the second place, swineherds, though native born Egyptians, are alone of all men forbidden to enter any Egyptian temple; nor will any give a swineherd his daughter in marriage, nor take a wife from their women; but swineherds intermarry among themselves.

Nor do the Egyptians think it right to sacrifice swine to any god except the Moon and Dionysus; to these, they sacrifice their swine at the same time, in the same season of full moon; then they eat the meat. The Egyptians have an explanation of why they sacrifice swine at this festival, yet abominate them at others; I know it, but it is not fitting that I relate it.

But this is how they sacrifice swine to the Moon: the sacrificer lays the end of the tail and the spleen and the caul together and covers them up with all the fat that he finds around the belly, then consigns it all to the fire; as for the rest of the flesh, they eat it at the time of full moon when they sacrifice the victim; but they will not taste it on any other day. Poor men, with but slender means, mold swine out of dough, which they then take and sacrifice.

To Dionysus, on the evening of his festival, everyone offers a piglet which he kills before his door and then gives to the swineherd who has sold it, for him to take away.

The rest of the festival of Dionysus is observed by the Egyptians much as it is by the Greeks, except for the dances; but in place of the phallus, they have invented the use of puppets two feet high moved by strings, the male member nodding and nearly as big as the rest of the body, which are carried about the villages by women; a flute-player goes ahead, the women follow behind singing of Dionysus.

Why the male member is so large and is the only part of the body that moves, there is a sacred legend that explains.

Now then, it seems to me that Melampus son of Amytheon was not ignorant of but was familiar with this sacrifice. For Melampus was the one who taught the Greeks the name of Dionysus and the way of sacrificing to him and the phallic procession; he did not exactly unveil the subject taking all its details into consideration, for the teachers who came after him made a fuller revelation; but it was from him that the Greeks learned to bear the phallus along in honor of Dionysus, and they got their present practice from his teaching.

I say, then, that Melampus acquired the prophetic art, being a discerning man, and that, besides many other things which he learned from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , he also taught the Greeks things concerning Dionysus, altering few of them; for I will not say that what is done in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt in connection with the god and what is done among the Greeks originated independently: for they would then be of an Hellenic character and not recently introduced.

Nor again will I say that the Egyptians took either this or any other custom from the Greeks. But I believe that Melampus learned the worship of Dionysus chiefly from Cadmus of +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Tyre and those who came with Cadmus from +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia to the land now called Boeotia (department), Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Boeotia .

In fact, the names of nearly all the gods came to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . For I am convinced by inquiry that they have come from foreign parts, and I believe that they came chiefly from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Except the names of Poseidon and the Dioscuri, as I have already said, and Hera, and Hestia, and Themis, and the Graces, and the Nereids, the names of all the gods have always existed in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . I only say what the Egyptians themselves say. The gods whose names they say they do not know were, as I think, named by the Pelasgians, except Poseidon, the knowledge of whom they learned from the Libyans.

Alone of all nations the Libyans have had among them the name of Poseidon from the beginning, and they have always honored this god. The Egyptians, however, are not accustomed to pay any honors to heroes.

These customs, then, and others besides, which I shall indicate, were taken by the Greeks from the Egyptians. It was not so with the ithyphallic images of Hermes; the production of these came from the Pelasgians, from whom the Athenians were the first Greeks to take it, and then handed it on to others.

For the Athenians were then already counted as Greeks when the Pelasgians came to live in the land with them and thereby began to be considered as Greeks. Whoever has been initiated into the rites of the Cabeiri, which the Samothracians learned from the Pelasgians and now practice, understands what my meaning is.

+Samothrace (island), Nomos Evrou, Western Thrace, Greece, Europe Samothrace was formerly inhabited by those Pelasgians who came to live among the Athenians, and it is from them that the Samothracians take their rites.

The Athenians, then, were the first Greeks to make ithyphallic images of Hermes, and they did this because the Pelasgians taught them. The Pelasgians told a certain sacred tale about this, which is set forth in the Samothracian mysteries.

Formerly, in all their sacrifices, the Pelasgians called upon gods without giving name or appellation to any (I know this, because I was told at Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona ); for as yet they had not heard of such. They called them gods from the fact that, besides setting everything in order, they maintained all the dispositions.

Then, after a long while, first they learned the names of the rest of the gods, which came to them from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and, much later, the name of Dionysus; and presently they asked the oracle at Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona about the names; for this place of divination, held to be the most ancient in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , was at that time the only one.

When the Pelasgians, then, asked at Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona whether they should adopt the names that had come from foreign parts, the oracle told them to use the names. From that time onwards they used the names of the gods in their sacrifices; and the Greeks received these later from the Pelasgians.

But whence each of the gods came to be, or whether all had always been, and how they appeared in form, they did not know until yesterday or the day before, so to speak;

for I suppose Hesiod and Homer flourished not more than four hundred years earlier than I; and these are the ones who taught the Greeks the descent of the gods, and gave the gods their names, and determined their spheres and functions, and described their outward forms.

But the poets who are said to have been earlier than these men were, in my opinion, later. The earlier part of all this is what the priestesses of Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona tell; the later, that which concerns Hesiod and Homer, is what I myself say.

But about the oracles in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , and that one which is in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , the Egyptians give the following account. The priests of Zeus of Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes told me that two priestesses had been carried away from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes by Phoenicians; one, they said they had heard was taken away and sold in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , the other in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas ; these women, they said, were the first founders of places of divination in the aforesaid countries.

When I asked them how it was that they could speak with such certain knowledge, they said in reply that their people had sought diligently for these women, and had never been able to find them, but had learned later the story which they were telling me.

That, then, I heard from the Theban priests; and what follows, the prophetesses of Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona say: that two black doves had come flying from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , one to Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya and one to Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona ;

the latter settled on an oak tree, and there uttered human speech, declaring that a place of divination from Zeus must be made there; the people of Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona understood that the message was divine, and therefore established the oracular shrine.

The dove which came to Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya told the Libyans (they say) to make an oracle of Ammon; this also is sacred to Zeus. Such was the story told by the Dodonaean priestesses, the eldest of whom was Promeneia and the next Timarete and the youngest Nicandra; and the rest of the servants of the temple at Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona similarly held it true.

But my own belief about it is this. If the Phoenicians did in fact carry away the sacred women and sell one in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya and one in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , then, in my opinion, the place where this woman was sold in what is now Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , but was formerly called Pelasgia, was +Nomo Thesprotias [20.333,39.5] (department), Epirus, Greece, Europe Thesprotia ;

and then, being a slave there, she established a shrine of Zeus under an oak that was growing there; for it was reasonable that, as she had been a handmaid of the temple of Zeus at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes , she would remember that temple in the land to which she had come.

After this, as soon as she understood the Greek language, she taught divination; and she said that her sister had been sold in Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya by the same Phoenicians who sold her.

I expect that these women were called “doves” by the people of Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona because they spoke a strange language, and the people thought it like the cries of birds;

then the woman spoke what they could understand, and that is why they say that the dove uttered human speech; as long as she spoke in a foreign tongue, they thought her voice was like the voice of a bird. For how could a dove utter the speech of men? The tale that the dove was black signifies that the woman was Egyptian .

The fashions of divination at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and at Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus) Dodona are like one another; moreover, the practice of divining from the sacrificed victim has also come from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

It would seem, too, that the Egyptians were the first people to establish solemn assemblies, and processions, and services; the Greeks learned all that from them. I consider this proved, because the Egyptian ceremonies are manifestly very ancient, and the Greek are of recent origin.

The Egyptians hold solemn assemblies not once a year, but often. The principal one of these and the most enthusiastically celebrated is that in honor of Artemis at the town of +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis , and the next is that in honor of Isis at Busiris.

This town is in the middle of the Egyptian Delta, and there is in it a very great temple of Isis, who is Demeter in the Greek language.

The third greatest festival is at Saïs in honor of Athena; the fourth is the festival of the sun at +Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis , the fifth of Leto at +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto , and the sixth of Ares at Papremis.

When the people are on their way to +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis , they go by river, a great number in every boat, men and women together. Some of the women make a noise with rattles, others play flutes all the way, while the rest of the women, and the men, sing and clap their hands.

As they travel by river to +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis , whenever they come near any other town they bring their boat near the bank; then some of the women do as I have said, while some shout mockery of the women of the town; others dance, and others stand up and lift their skirts. They do this whenever they come alongside any riverside town.

But when they have reached +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis , they make a festival with great sacrifices, and more wine is drunk at this feast than in the whole year besides. It is customary for men and women (but not children) to assemble there to the number of seven hundred thousand, as the people of the place say.

This is what they do there; I have already described how they keep the feast of Isis at Busiris. There, after the sacrifice, all the men and women lament, in countless numbers; but it is not pious for me to say who it is for whom they lament.

Carians who live in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt do even more than this, inasmuch as they cut their foreheads with knives; and by this they show that they are foreigners and not Egyptians.

When they assemble at Saïs on the night of the sacrifice, they keep lamps burning outside around their houses. These lamps are saucers full of salt and oil on which the wick floats, and they burn all night. This is called the Feast of Lamps.

Egyptians who do not come to this are mindful on the night of sacrifice to keep their own lamps burning, and so they are alight not only at Saïs but throughout Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . A sacred tale is told showing why this night is lit up thus and honored.

When the people go to +Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis and +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto , they offer sacrifice only. At Papremis sacrifice is offered and rites performed just as elsewhere; but when the sun is setting, a few of the priests hover about the image, while most of them go and stand in the entrance to the temple with clubs of wood in their hands; others, more than a thousand men fulfilling vows, who also carry wooden clubs, stand in a mass opposite.

The image of the god, in a little gilded wooden shrine, they carry away on the day before this to another sacred building. The few who are left with the image draw a four-wheeled wagon conveying the shrine and the image that is in the shrine; the others stand in the space before the doors and do not let them enter, while the vow-keepers, taking the side of the god, strike them, who defend themselves.

A fierce fight with clubs breaks out there, and they are hit on their heads, and many, I expect, even die from their wounds; although the Egyptians said that nobody dies.

The natives say that they made this assembly a custom from the following incident: the mother of Ares lived in this temple; Ares had been raised apart from her and came, when he grew up, wishing to visit his mother; but as her attendants kept him out and would not let him pass, never having seen him before, Ares brought men from another town, manhandled the attendants, and went in to his mother. From this, they say, this hitting for Ares became a custom in the festival.

Furthermore, it was the Egyptians who first made it a matter of religious observance not to have intercourse with women in temples or to enter a temple after such intercourse without washing. Nearly all other peoples are less careful in this matter than are the Egyptians and Greeks, and consider a man to be like any other animal;

for beasts and birds (they say) are seen to mate both in the temples and in the sacred precincts; now were this displeasing to the god, the beasts would not do so. This is the reason given by others for practices which I, for my part, dislike;

but the Egyptians in this and in all other matters are exceedingly strict against desecration of their temples.

Although Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt has Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya on its borders, it is not a country of many animals. All of them are held sacred; some of these are part of men's households and some not; but if I were to say why they are left alone as sacred, I should end up talking of matters of divinity, which I am especially averse to treating; I have never touched upon such except where necessity has compelled me.

But I will indicate how it is customary to deal with the animals. Men and women are appointed guardians to provide nourishment for each kind respectively; a son inherits this office from his father.

Townsfolk in each place, when they pay their vows, pray to the god to whom the animal is dedicated, shaving all or one half or one third of their children's heads, and weighing the hair in a balance against a sum of silver; then the weight in silver of the hair is given to the female guardian of the creatures, who buys fish with it and feeds them.

Thus, food is provided for them. Whoever kills one of these creatures intentionally is punished with death; if he kills accidentally, he pays whatever penalty the priests appoint. Whoever kills an ibis or a hawk, intentionally or not, must die for it.

There are many household animals; and there would be many more, were it not for what happens among the cats. When the females have a litter, they are no longer receptive to the males; those that seek to have intercourse with them cannot;

so their recourse is to steal and carry off and kill the kittens (but they do not eat what they have killed). The mothers, deprived of their young and desiring to have more, will then approach the males; for they are creatures that love offspring.

And when a fire breaks out, very strange things happen among the cats. The Egyptians stand around in a broken line, thinking more of the cats than of quenching the burning; but the cats slip through or leap over the men and spring into the fire.

When this happens, there is great mourning in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . The occupants of a house where a cat has died a natural death shave their eyebrows and no more; where a dog has died, the head and the whole body are shaven.

Dead cats are taken away to sacred buildings in the town of +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis , where they are embalmed and buried; female dogs are buried by the townsfolk in their own towns in sacred coffins; and the like is done with mongooses. Shrewmice and hawks are taken away to +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto , ibises to the city of Hermes.

There are few bears, and the wolves are little bigger than foxes; both these are buried wherever they are found lying.

The nature of crocodiles is as follows. For the four winter months, it eats nothing. It has four feet, and lives both on land and in the water, for it lays eggs and hatches them out on land and spends the greater part of the day on dry ground, and the night in the river, the water being warmer than the air and dew.

No mortal creature of all which we know grows from so small a beginning to such greatness; for its eggs are not much bigger than goose eggs, and the young crocodile is of a proportional size, but it grows to a length of twenty-eight feet and more.

It has eyes like pigs' eyes, and long, protruding teeth. It is the only animal that has no tongue. It does not move the lower jaw, but brings the upper jaw down upon the lower, uniquely among beasts.

It also has strong claws, and a scaly, impenetrable hide on its back. It is blind in the water, but very keen of sight in the air. Since it lives in the water, its mouth is all full of leeches. All birds and beasts flee from it, except the sandpiper , with which it is at peace because this bird does the crocodile a service;

for whenever the crocodile comes ashore out of the water and then opens its mouth (and it does this mostly to catch the west wind), the sandpiper goes into its mouth and eats the leeches; the crocodile is pleased by this service and does the sandpiper no harm.

Some of the Egyptians consider crocodiles sacred; others do not, but treat them as enemies. Those who live near Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes and Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa lake Moeris consider them very sacred.

Every household raises one crocodile, trained to be tame; they put ornaments of glass and gold on its ears and bracelets on its forefeet, provide special food and offerings for it, and give the creatures the best of treatment while they live; after death, the crocodiles are embalmed and buried in sacred coffins.

But around Elephantine they are not held sacred, and are even eaten. The Egyptians do not call them crocodiles, but khampsae. The Ionians named them crocodiles, from their resemblance to the lizards which they have in their walls.

There are many different ways of crocodile hunting; I will write of the way that I think most worth mentioning. The hunter baits a hook with a hog's back, and lets it float into the midst of the river; he himself stays on the bank with a young live pig, which he beats.

Hearing the squeals of the pig, the crocodile goes after the sound, and meets the bait, which it swallows; then the hunters pull the line. When the crocodile is drawn ashore, first of all the hunter smears its eyes over with mud; when this is done, the quarry is very easily mastered—no light matter, without that.

Hippopotamuses are sacred in the district of Papremis, but not elsewhere in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . They present the following appearance: four-footed, with cloven hooves like cattle; blunt-nosed; with a horse's mane, visible tusks, a horse's tail and voice; big as the biggest bull. Their hide is so thick that, when it is dried, spearshafts are made of it.

Otters are found in the river, too, which the Egyptians consider sacred; and they consider sacred that fish, too, which is called the scale-fish, and the eel. These, and the fox-goose among birds, are said to be sacred to the god of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), AfricaNile.

There is another sacred bird, too, whose name is phoenix. I myself have never seen it, only pictures of it; for the bird seldom comes into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt : once in five hundred years, as the people of +Heliopolis [31.333,30.1] (deserted settlement), Cairo, Urban, Egypt, Africa Heliopolis say.

It is said that the phoenix comes when his father dies. If the picture truly shows his size and appearance, his plumage is partly golden and partly red. He is most like an eagle in shape and size.

What they say this bird manages to do is incredible to me. Flying from Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia to the temple of the sun, they say, he conveys his father encased in myrrh and buries him at the temple of the Sun.

This is how he conveys him: he first molds an egg of myrrh as heavy as he can carry, then tries lifting it, and when he has tried it, he then hollows out the egg and puts his father into it, and plasters over with more myrrh the hollow of the egg into which he has put his father, which is the same in weight with his father lying in it, and he conveys him encased to the temple of the Sun in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . This is what they say this bird does.

Near Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes there are sacred snakes, harmless to men, small in size, and bearing two horns on the top of their heads. These, when they die, are buried in the temple of Zeus, to whom they are said to be sacred.

There is a place in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia not far from the town of +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto where I went to learn about the winged serpents. When I arrived there, I saw innumerable bones and backbones of serpents: many heaps of backbones, great and small and even smaller.

This place, where the backbones lay scattered, is where a narrow mountain pass opens into a great plain, which adjoins the plain of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Winged serpents are said to fly from Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia at the beginning of spring, making for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; but the ibis birds encounter the invaders in this pass and kill them.

The Arabians say that the ibis is greatly honored by the Egyptians for this service, and the Egyptians give the same reason for honoring these birds.

Now this is the appearance of the ibis. It is all quite black, with the legs of a crane, and a beak sharply hooked, and is as big as a landrail. Such is the appearance of the ibis which fights with the serpents. Those that most associate with men (for there are two kinds of ibis )

have the whole head and neck bare of feathers; their plumage is white, except the head and neck and wingtips and tail (these being quite black); the legs and beak of the bird are like those of the other ibis. The serpents are like water-snakes.

Their wings are not feathered but very like the wings of a bat.I have now said enough concerning creatures that are sacred.

Among the Egyptians themselves, those who live in the cultivated country are the most assiduous of all men at preserving the memory of the past, and none whom I have questioned are so skilled in history.

They practice the following way of life. For three consecutive days in every month they purge themselves, pursuing health by means of emetics and drenches; for they think that it is from the food they eat that all sicknesses come to men.

Even without this, the Egyptians are the healthiest of all men, next to the Libyans; the explanation of which, in my opinion, is that the climate in all seasons is the same: for change is the great cause of men's falling sick, more especially changes of seasons.

They eat bread, making loaves which they call “cyllestis,” of coarse grain. For wine, they use a drink made from barley, for they have no vines in their country. They eat fish either raw and sun-dried, or preserved with brine.

Quails and ducks and small birds are salted and eaten raw; all other kinds of birds, as well as fish (except those that the Egyptians consider sacred) are eaten roasted or boiled.

After rich men's repasts, a man carries around an image in a coffin, painted and carved in exact imitation of a corpse two or four feet long. This he shows to each of the company, saying “While you drink and enjoy, look on this; for to this state you must come when you die.” Such is the custom at their symposia.

They keep the customs of their fathers, adding none to them. Among other notable customs of theirs is this, that they have one song, the Linus-song, which is sung in +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia and Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus and elsewhere; each nation has a name of its own for this,

but it happens to be the same song that the Greeks sing, and call Linus; so that of many things in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt that amaze me, one is: where did the Egyptians get Linus? Plainly they have always sung this song; but in Egyptian Linus is called Maneros.

The Egyptians told me that Maneros was the only son of their first king, who died prematurely, and this dirge was sung by the Egyptians in his honor; and this, they said, was their earliest and their only chant.

There is a custom, too, which no Greeks except the Lacedaemonians have in common with the Egyptians: younger men, encountering their elders, yield the way and stand aside, and rise from their seats for them when they approach.

But they are like none of the Greeks in this: passers-by do not address each other, but salute by lowering the hand to the knee.

They wear linen tunics with fringes hanging about the legs, called “calasiris,” and loose white woolen mantles over these. But nothing woolen is brought into temples, or buried with them: that is impious.

They agree in this with practices called Orphic and Bacchic, but in fact Egyptian and Pythagorean: for it is impious, too, for one partaking of these rites to be buried in woolen wrappings. There is a sacred legend about this.

Other things originating with the Egyptians are these. Each month and day belong to one of the gods, and according to the day of one's birth are determined how one will fare and how one will end and what one will be like; those Greeks occupied with poetry exploit this.

More portents have been discovered by them than by all other peoples; when a portent occurs, they take note of the outcome and write it down; and if something of a like kind happens again, they think it will have a like result.

As to the art of divination among them, it belongs to no man, but to some of the gods; there are in their country oracles of Heracles, Apollo, Athena, Artemis, Ares, and Zeus, and of Leto (the most honored of all) in the town of +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto . Nevertheless, they have several ways of divination, not just one.

The practice of medicine is so specialized among them that each physician is a healer of one disease and no more. All the country is full of physicians, some of the eye, some of the teeth, some of what pertains to the belly, and some of internal diseases.

They mourn and bury the dead like this: whenever a man of note is lost to his house by death, all the women of the house daub their faces or heads with mud; then they leave the corpse in the house and roam about the city lamenting, with their garments girt around them and their breasts showing, and with them all the women of their relatives;

elsewhere, the men lament, with garments girt likewise. When this is done, they take the dead body to be embalmed.

There are men whose sole business this is and who have this special craft.

When a dead body is brought to them, they show those who brought it wooden models of corpses, painted likenesses; the most perfect way of embalming belongs, they say, to One whose name it would be impious for me to mention in treating such a matter; the second way, which they show, is less perfect than the first, and cheaper; and the third is the least costly of all. Having shown these, they ask those who brought the body in which way they desire to have it prepared.

Having agreed on a price, the bearers go away, and the workmen, left alone in their place, embalm the body. If they do this in the most perfect way, they first draw out part of the brain through the nostrils with an iron hook, and inject certain drugs into the rest.

Then, making a cut near the flank with a sharp knife of Ethiopian stone, they take out all the intestines, and clean the belly, rinsing it with palm wine and bruised spices;

they sew it up again after filling the belly with pure ground myrrh and casia and any other spices, except frankincense. After doing this, they conceal the body for seventy days, embalmed in saltpetre; no longer time is allowed for the embalming;

and when the seventy days have passed, they wash the body and wrap the whole of it in bandages of fine linen cloth, anointed with gum, which the Egyptians mostly use instead of glue;

then they give the dead man back to his friends. These make a hollow wooden figure like a man, in which they enclose the corpse, shut it up, and keep it safe in a coffin-chamber, placed erect against a wall.

That is how they prepare the dead in the most costly way; those who want the middle way and shun the costly, they prepare as follows.

The embalmers charge their syringes with cedar oil and fill the belly of the dead man with it, without making a cut or removing the intestines, but injecting the fluid through the anus and preventing it from running out; then they embalm the body for the appointed days; on the last day they drain the belly of the cedar oil which they put in before.

It has such great power as to bring out with it the internal organs and intestines all dissolved; meanwhile, the flesh is eaten away by the saltpetre, and in the end nothing is left of the body but hide and bones. Then the embalmers give back the dead body with no more ado.

The third manner of embalming, the preparation of the poorer dead, is this: they cleanse the belly with a purge, embalm the body for the seventy days and then give it back to be taken away.

Wives of notable men, and women of great beauty and reputation, are not at once given to the embalmers, but only after they have been dead for three or four days;

this is done to deter the embalmers from having intercourse with the women. For it is said that one was caught having intercourse with the fresh corpse of a woman, and was denounced by his fellow-workman.

Anyone, Egyptian or foreigner, known to have been carried off by a crocodile or drowned by the river itself, must by all means be embalmed and wrapped as attractively as possible and buried in a sacred coffin by the people of the place where he is cast ashore;

none of his relatives or friends may touch him, but his body is considered something more than human, and is handled and buried by the priests of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile themselves.

The Egyptians shun using Greek customs, and (generally speaking) the customs of all other peoples as well. Yet, though the rest are wary of this, there is a great city called +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Khemmis , in the Theban district, near the New City.

In this city is a square temple of Perseus son of Danae, in a grove of palm trees. Before this temple stand great stone columns; and at the entrance, two great stone statues. In the outer court there is a shrine with an image of Perseus standing in it.

The people of this +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Khemmis say that Perseus is seen often up and down this land, and often within the temple, and that the sandal he wears, which is four feet long, keeps turning up, and that when it does turn up, all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt prospers.

This is what they say; and their doings in honor of Perseus are Greek, inasmuch as they celebrate games that include every form of contest, and offer animals and cloaks and skins as prizes.

When I asked why Perseus appeared only to them, and why, unlike all other Egyptians, they celebrate games, they told me that Perseus was by lineage of their city; for Danaus and Lynceus, who travelled to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece , were of +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Khemmis ; and they traced descent from these down to Perseus.

They told how he came to +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Khemmis , too, when he came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt for the reason alleged by the Greeks as well—namely, to bring the Gorgon's head from Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya —and recognized all his relatives; and how he had heard the name of +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Khemmis from his mother before he came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . It was at his bidding, they said, that they celebrated the games.

All these are the customs of Egyptians who live above the marsh country. Those who inhabit the marshes have the same customs as the rest of Egyptians, even that each man has one wife just like Greeks. They have, besides, devised means to make their food less costly.

When the river is in flood and flows over the plains, many lilies, which the Egyptians call lotus, grow in the water. They gather these and dry them in the sun; then they crush the poppy-like center of the plant and bake loaves of it.

The root of this lotus is edible also, and of a sweetish taste; it is round, and the size of an apple.

Other lilies grow in the river, too, that are like roses; the fruit of these is found in a calyx springing from the root by a separate stalk, and is most like a comb made by wasps; this produces many edible seeds as big as olive pits, which are eaten both fresh and dried.

They also use the byblus which grows annually: it is gathered from the marshes, the top of it cut off and put to other uses, and the lower part, about twenty inches long, eaten or sold. Those who wish to use the byblus at its very best, roast it before eating in a red-hot oven. Some live on fish alone. They catch the fish, take out the intestines, then dry them in the sun and eat them dried.

Fish that go in schools are seldom born in rivers; they are raised in the lakes, and this is how they behave: when the desire of spawning comes on them, they swim out to sea in schools, the males leading, and throwing out their milt, while the females come after and swallow and conceive from it.

When the females have grown heavy in the sea, then all the fish swim back to their own haunts. But the same no longer lead; now the leadership goes to the females. They go before in a school as the males had, and now and then throw off some of their eggs (which are like millet-seeds), which the males devour as they follow. These millet-seeds, or eggs, are fish.

The fish that are reared come from the eggs that survive and are not devoured. Those fish that are caught while swimming seawards show bruises on the left side of their heads; those that are caught returning, on the right side.

This happens because they keep close to the left bank as they swim seawards, and keep to the same bank also on their return, grazing it and keeping in contact with it as well as they can, I suppose lest the current make them miss their way.

When the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile begins to rise, hollow and marshy places near the river are the first to begin to fill, the water trickling through from the river, and as soon as they are flooded, they are suddenly full of little fishes.

Where these probably come from, I believe that I can guess. When the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile falls, the fish have dropped their eggs into the mud before they leave with the last of the water; and when in the course of time the flood comes again in the following year, from these eggs at once come the fish.

So much, then, for the fish. The Egyptians who live around the marshes use an oil drawn from the castor-berry, which they call kiki. They sow this plant, which grows wild in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , on the banks of the rivers and lakes;

sown in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , it produces abundant fruit, though malodorous; when they gather this, some bruise and press it, others boil after roasting it, and collect the liquid that comes from it. This is thick and useful as oil for lamps, and gives off a strong smell.

Against the mosquitos that abound, the following have been devised by them: those who dwell higher up than the marshy country are well served by the towers where they ascend to sleep, for the winds prevent the mosquitos from flying aloft;

those living about the marshes have a different recourse, instead of the towers. Every one of them has a net, with which he catches fish by day, and at night he sets it around the bed where he rests, then creeps under it and sleeps.

If he sleeps wrapped in a garment or cloth, the mosquitos bite through it; but through the net they absolutely do not even venture.

The boats in which they carry cargo are made of the acacia, which is most like the lotus of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene in form, and its sap is gum. Of this tree they cut logs of four feet long and lay them like courses of bricks, and build the boat

by fastening these four foot logs to long and close-set stakes; and having done so, they set crossbeams athwart and on the logs. They use no ribs. They caulk the seams within with byblus.

There is one rudder, passing through a hole in the boat's keel. The mast is of acacia-wood and the sails of byblus. These boats cannot move upstream unless a brisk breeze continues; they are towed from the bank; but downstream they are managed thus:

they have a raft made of tamarisk wood, fastened together with matting of reeds, and a pierced stone of about two talents' weight; the raft is let go to float down ahead of the boat, connected to it by a rope, and the stone is connected by a rope to the after part of the boat.

So, driven by the current, the raft floats swiftly and tows the “baris” (which is the name of these boats,) and the stone dragging behind on the river bottom keeps the boat's course straight. There are many of these boats; some are of many thousand talents' burden.

When the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile overflows the land, only the towns are seen high and dry above the water, very like the islands in the +Aegean Sea [25,38.5] (sea) Aegean sea . These alone stand out, the rest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt being a sheet of water. So when this happens, folk are not ferried, as usual, in the course of the stream, but clean over the plain.

Indeed, the boat going up from Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Naucratis to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis passes close by the pyramids themselves, though the course does not go by here, but by the Delta's point and the town Cercasorus; but your voyage from the sea and +Canopus [30.5,31.316] (deserted settlement), Al-Iskandariyah, Urban, Egypt, Africa Canobus to Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Naucratis will take you over the plain near the town of Anthylla and that which is called Arkhandrus' town.

Anthylla is a town of some reputation, and is especially assigned to the consort of the reigning king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , to provide her shoes. This has been done since Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt has been under Persian dominion.

The other town, I think, is named after Arkhandrus son of Phthius the Achaean, and son-in-law of Danaus; for it is called Arkhandrus' town. It may be that there was another Arkhandrus; but the name is not Egyptian.

So far, all I have said is the record of my own autopsy and judgment and inquiry. Henceforth I will record Egyptian chronicles, according to what I have heard, adding something of what I myself have seen.

The priests told me that Min was the first king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and that first he separated Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile by a dam. All the river had flowed close under the sandy mountains on the Libyan side, but Min made the southern bend of it, which begins about twelve and one half miles above Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , by damming the stream, thereby drying up the ancient channel, and carried the river by a channel so that it flowed midway between the hills.

And to this day the Persians keep careful watch on this bend of the river, strengthening its dam every year to keep the current in; for were the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile to burst its dikes and overflow here, all Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis would be in danger of flooding.

Then, when this first king Min had made dry land of what he thus cut off, he first founded in it that city which is now called Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis (for even Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis lies in the narrow part of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ), and outside of it he dug a lake from the river to its north and west (for the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile itself bounds it on the east); and secondly, he built in it the great and most noteworthy temple of Hephaestus.

After him came three hundred and thirty kings, whose names the priests recited from a papyrus roll. In all these many generations there were eighteen Ethiopian kings, and one queen, native to the country; the rest were all Egyptian men.

The name of the queen was the same as that of the Babylonian princess, Nitocris. She, to avenge her brother (he was king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and was slain by his subjects, who then gave Nitocris the sovereignty) put many of the Egyptians to death by treachery.

She built a spacious underground chamber; then, with the pretence of inaugurating it, but with quite another intent in her mind, she gave a great feast, inviting to it those Egyptians whom she knew to have had the most complicity in her brother's murder; and while they feasted, she let the river in upon them by a vast secret channel.

This was all that the priests told of her, except that when she had done this she cast herself into a chamber full of hot ashes, to escape vengeance.

But of the other kings they related no achievement or act of great note, except of Moeris, the last of them.

This Moeris was remembered as having built the northern forecourt of the temple of Hephaestus, and dug a lake, of as great a circumference as I shall later indicate; and built pyramids there also, the size of which I will mention when I speak of the lake. All this was Moeris' work, they said; of none of the rest had they anything to record.

Leaving the latter aside, then, I shall speak of the king who came after them, whose name was Sesostris .

This king, the priests said, set out with a fleet of long ships from the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia Arabian Gulf and subjugated all those living by the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea , until he came to a sea which was too shallow for his vessels.

After returning from there back to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , he gathered a great army (according to the account of the priests) and marched over the mainland, subjugating every nation to which he came.

When those that he met were valiant men and strove hard for freedom, he set up pillars in their land, the inscription on which showed his own name and his country's, and how he had overcome them with his own power;

but when the cities had made no resistance and been easily taken, then he put an inscription on the pillars just as he had done where the nations were brave; but he also drew on them the private parts of a woman, wishing to show clearly that the people were cowardly.

He marched over the country doing this until he had crossed over from Asia (continent) Asia to Europe (continent) Europe and defeated the Scythians and Thracians. Thus far and no farther, I think, the Egyptian army went; for the pillars can be seen standing in their country, but in none beyond it.

From there, he turned around and went back home; and when he came to the Phasis river, that King, Sesostris, may have detached some part of his army and left it there to live in the country (for I cannot speak with exact knowledge), or it may be that some of his soldiers grew weary of his wanderings, and stayed by the +Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited place), regions under republican jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia Phasis.

For it is plain to see that the Colchians are Egyptians; and what I say, I myself noted before I heard it from others. When it occurred to me, I inquired of both peoples; and the Colchians remembered the Egyptians better than the Egyptians remembered the Colchians;

the Egyptians said that they considered the Colchians part of Sesostris' army. I myself guessed it, partly because they are dark-skinned and woolly-haired; though that indeed counts for nothing, since other peoples are, too; but my better proof was that the Colchians and Egyptians and Ethiopians are the only nations that have from the first practised circumcision.

The Phoenicians and the Syrians of +Palestine [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia Palestine acknowledge that they learned the custom from the Egyptians, and the Syrians of the valleys of the Thermodon and the Parthenius, as well as their neighbors the Macrones, say that they learned it lately from the Colchians. These are the only nations that circumcise, and it is seen that they do just as the Egyptians.

But as to the Egyptians and Ethiopians themselves, I cannot say which nation learned it from the other; for it is evidently a very ancient custom. That the others learned it through traffic with Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , I consider clearly proved by this: that Phoenicians who traffic with Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas cease to imitate the Egyptians in this matter and do not circumcise their children.

Listen to something else about the Colchians, in which they are like the Egyptians: they and the Egyptians alone work linen and have the same way of working it, a way peculiar to themselves; and they are alike in all their way of life, and in their speech. Linen has two names: the Colchian kind is called by the Greeks Sardonian ; that which comes from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is called Egyptian.

As to the pillars that Sesostris, king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , set up in the countries, most of them are no longer to be seen. But I myself saw them in the +Palestine [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia Palestine district of +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria , with the aforesaid writing and the women's private parts on them.

Also, there are in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia two figures of this man carved in rock, one on the road from +Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Ephesus to +Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea , and the other on that from Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis to +Smyrna [27.1667,38.4167] (Perseus) Smyrna .

In both places, the figure is over twenty feet high, with a spear in his right hand and a bow in his left, and the rest of his equipment proportional; for it is both Egyptian and Ethiopian;

and right across the breast from one shoulder to the other a text is cut in the Egyptian sacred characters, saying: “I myself won this land with the strength of my shoulders.” There is nothing here to show who he is and whence he comes, but it is shown elsewhere.

Some of those who have seen these figures guess they are Memnon, but they are far indeed from the truth.

Now when this Egyptian Sesostris (so the priests said) reached +Daphnae [32.183,30.866] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Daphnae of +Pelusium (deserted settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert, Egypt, Africa Pelusium on his way home, leading many captives from the peoples whose lands he had subjugated, his brother, whom he had left in charge in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , invited him and his sons to a banquet and then piled wood around the house and set it on fire.

When Sesostris was aware of this, he at once consulted his wife, whom (it was said) he had with him; and she advised him to lay two of his six sons on the fire and make a bridge over the burning so that they could walk over the bodies of the two and escape. This Sesostris did; two of his sons were thus burnt but the rest escaped alive with their father.

After returning to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and avenging himself on his brother, Sesostris found work for the multitude which he brought with him from the countries which he had subdued.

It was these who dragged the great and long blocks of stone which were brought in this king's reign to the temple of Hephaestus; and it was they who were compelled to dig all the canals which are now in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and involuntarily made what had been a land of horses and carts empty of these.

For from this time Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , although a level land, could use no horses or carts, because there were so many canals going every which way. The reason why the king thus intersected the country was this:

those Egyptians whose towns were not on the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , but inland from it, lacked water whenever the flood left their land, and drank only brackish water from wells.

For this reason Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt was intersected. This king also (they said) divided the country among all the Egyptians by giving each an equal parcel of land, and made this his source of revenue, assessing the payment of a yearly tax.

And any man who was robbed by the river of part of his land could come to Sesostris and declare what had happened; then the king would send men to look into it and calculate the part by which the land was diminished, so that thereafter it should pay in proportion to the tax originally imposed.

From this, in my opinion, the Greeks learned the art of measuring land; the sunclock and the sundial, and the twelve divisions of the day, came to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas from +Babylonia (region (general)), Iraq, Asia Babylonia and not from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Sesostris was the only Egyptian king who also ruled Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia . To commemorate his name, he set before the temple of Hephaestus two stone statues, of himself and of his wife, each fifty feet high, and statues of his four sons, each thirty-three feet.

Long afterwards, Darius the Persian would have set up his statue before these; but the priest of Hephaestus forbade him, saying that he had achieved nothing equal to the deeds of Sesostris the Egyptian; for Sesostris (he said) had subjugated the Scythians, besides as many nations as Darius had conquered, and Darius had not been able to overcome the Scythians;

therefore, it was not just that Darius should set his statue before the statues of Sesostris, whose achievements he had not equalled. Darius, it is said, let the priest have his way.

When Sesostris died, he was succeeded in the kingship (the priests said) by his son Pheros . This king waged no wars, and chanced to become blind, for the following reason: the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile came down in such a flood as there had never been, rising to a height of thirty feet, and the water that flowed over the fields was roughened by a strong wind;

then, it is said, the king was so audacious as to seize a spear and hurl it into the midst of the river eddies. Right after this, he came down with a disease of the eyes, and became blind. When he had been blind for ten years, an oracle from the city of +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto declared to him that the term of his punishment was drawing to an end, and that he would regain his sight by washing his eyes with the urine of a woman who had never had intercourse with any man but her own husband.

Pheros tried his own wife first; and, as he remained blind, all women, one after another. When he at last recovered his sight, he took all the women whom he had tried, except the one who had made him see again, and gathered them into one town, the one which is now called “Red Clay”; having concentrated them together there, he burnt them and the town;

but the woman by whose means he had recovered his sight, he married. Most worthy of mention among the many offerings which he dedicated in all the noteworthy temples for his deliverance from blindness are the two marvellous stone obelisks which he set up in the temple of the Sun. Each of these is made of a single block, and is over one hundred and sixty-six feet high and thirteen feet thick.

Pheros was succeeded (they said) by a man of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , whose name in the Greek tongue was Proteus. This Proteus has a very attractive and well-appointed temple precinct at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , south of the temple of Hephaestus.

Around the precinct live Phoenicians of +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Tyre , and the whole place is called the Camp of the Tyrians. There is in the precinct of Proteus a temple called the temple of the Stranger Aphrodite; I guess this is a temple of Helen, daughter of Tyndarus, partly because I have heard the story of Helen's abiding with Proteus, and partly because it bears the name of the Foreign Aphrodite: for no other of Aphrodite's temples is called by that name.

When I inquired of the priests, they told me that this was the story of Helen. After carrying off Helen from Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , Alexandrus sailed away for his own country; violent winds caught him in the +Aegean Sea [25,38.5] (sea) Aegean and drove him into the Egyptian sea; and from there (as the wind did not let up) he came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , to the mouth of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile called the Canopic mouth, and to the Salters'.

Now there was (and still is) on the coast a temple of Heracles; if a servant of any man takes refuge there and is branded with certain sacred marks, delivering himself to the god, he may not be touched. This law continues today the same as it has always been from the first.

Hearing of the temple law, some of Alexandrus' servants ran away from him, threw themselves on the mercy of the god, and brought an accusation against Alexandrus meaning to injure him, telling the whole story of Helen and the wrong done Menelaus. They laid this accusation before the priests and the warden of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile mouth, whose name was Thonis.

When Thonis heard it, he sent this message the quickest way to Proteus at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis :

“A stranger has come, a Trojan, who has committed an impiety in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . After defrauding his guest-friend, he has come bringing the man's wife and a very great deal of wealth, driven to your country by the wind. Are we to let him sail away untouched, or are we to take away what he has come with?”

Proteus sent back this message: “Whoever this is who has acted impiously against his guest-friend, seize him and bring him to me, that I may know what he will say.”

Hearing this, Thonis seized Alexandrus and detained his ships there, and then brought him with Helen and all the wealth, and the suppliants too, to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis .

When all had arrived, Proteus asked Alexandrus who he was and whence he sailed; Alexandrus told him his lineage and the name of his country, and about his voyage, whence he sailed.

Then Proteus asked him where he had got Helen; when Alexandrus was evasive in his story and did not tell the truth, the men who had taken refuge with the temple confuted him, and related the whole story of the wrong.

Finally, Proteus declared the following judgment to them, saying, “If I did not make it a point never to kill a stranger who has been caught by the wind and driven to my coasts, I would have punished you on behalf of the Greek, you most vile man. You committed the gravest impiety after you had had your guest-friend's hospitality: you had your guest-friend's wife.

And as if this were not enough, you got her to fly with you and went off with her. And not just with her, either, but you plundered your guest-friend's wealth and brought it, too.

Now, then, since I make it a point not to kill strangers, I shall not let you take away this woman and the wealth, but I shall watch them for the Greek stranger, until he come and take them away; but as for you and your sailors, I warn you to leave my country for another within three days, and if you do not, I will declare war on you.”

This, the priests said, was how Helen came to Proteus. And, in my opinion, Homer knew this story, too; but seeing that it was not so well suited to epic poetry as the tale of which he made use, he rejected it, showing that he knew it.

This is apparent from the passage in the Iliad (and nowhere else does he return to the story) where he relates the wanderings of Alexander, and shows how he and Helen were carried off course, and wandered to, among other places, +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Sidon in +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia .

There were the robes, all embroidered, The work of women of +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Sidon , whom godlike Alexandrus himself Brought from +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Sidon , crossing the broad sea, The same voyage on which he brought back Helen of noble descent.

The daughter of Zeus had such ingenious drugs, Good ones, which she had from Thon's wife, Polydamna, an Egyptian, Whose country's fertile plains bear the most drugs, Many mixed for good, many for harm:

I was eager to return here, but the gods still held me in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , Since I had not sacrificed entire hecatombs to them.

In these verses the poet shows that he knew of Alexander's wanderings to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; for +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria borders on Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and the Phoenicians, to whom +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Sidon belongs, dwell in +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria .

These verses and this passage prove most clearly that the Cyprian poems are not the work of Homer but of someone else. For the Cyprian poems relate that Alexandrus reached +Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Ilion with Helen in three days from Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Sparta , having a fair wind and a smooth sea; but according to the Iliad, he wandered from his course in bringing her.

Enough, then, of Homer and the Cyprian poems. But, when I asked the priests whether the Greek account of what happened at +Troy [26.2833,39.9167] (Perseus) Troy were idle or not, they gave me the following answer, saying that they had inquired and knew from Menelaus himself.

After the rape of Helen, a great force of Greeks came to the Trojan land on Menelaus' behalf. After disembarking and disposing their forces, they sent messengers to +Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Ilion , one of whom was Menelaus himself.

When these were let inside the city walls, they demanded the restitution of Helen and of the property which Alexandrus had stolen from Menelaus and carried off, and they demanded reparation for the wrongs; but the Trojans gave the same testimony then and later, sworn and unsworn: that they did not have Helen or the property claimed, but all of that was in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and they could not justly make reparation for what Proteus the Egyptian had.

But the Greeks, thinking that the Trojans were mocking them, laid siege to the city, until they took it; but there was no Helen there when they breached the wall, but they heard the same account as before; so, crediting the original testimony, they sent Menelaus himself to Proteus.

Menelaus then went to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and up the river to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis ; there, relating the truth of the matter, he met with great hospitality and got back Helen, who had not been harmed, and also all his wealth, besides.

Yet, although getting this, Menelaus was guilty of injustice toward the Egyptians. For adverse weather detained him when he tried to sail away; after this continued for some time, he carried out something impious,

taking two native children and sacrificing them. When it became known that he had done this, he fled with his ships straight to Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , hated and hunted; and where he went from there, the Egyptians could not say. The priests told me that they had learned some of this by inquiry, but that they were sure of what had happened in their own country.

The Egyptians' priests said this, and I myself believe their story about Helen, for I reason thus: had Helen been in +Troy [26.25,39.95] (deserted settlement), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Ilion , then with or without the will of Alexandrus she would have been given back to the Greeks.

For surely Priam was not so mad, or those nearest to him, as to consent to risk their own persons and their children and their city so that Alexandrus might cohabit with Helen.

Even if it were conceded that they were so inclined in the first days, yet when not only many of the Trojans were slain in fighting against the Greeks, but Priam himself lost to death two or three or even more of his sons in every battle (if the poets are to be believed), in this turn of events, had Helen been Priam's own wife, I cannot but think that he would have restored her to the Greeks, if by so doing he could escape from the evils besetting him.

Alexandrus was not even heir to the throne, in which case matters might have been in his hands since Priam was old, but Hector, who was an older and a better man than Alexandrus, was going to receive the royal power at Priam's death, and ought not have acquiesced in his brother's wrongdoing, especially when that brother was the cause of great calamity to Hector himself and all the rest of the Trojans.

But since they did not have Helen there to give back, and since the Greeks would not believe them although they spoke the truth—I am convinced and declare—the divine powers provided that the Trojans, perishing in utter destruction, should make this clear to all mankind: that retribution from the gods for terrible wrongdoing is also terrible. This is what I think, and I state it.

The next to reign after Proteus (they said) was Rhampsinitus. The memorial of his name left by him was the western forecourt of the temple of Hephaestus; he set two statues here forty-one feet high; the northernmost of these the Egyptians call Summer, and the southernmost Winter; the one that they call Summer they worship and treat well, but do the opposite to the statue called Winter.

This king (they told me) had great wealth in silver, so great that none of the succeeding kings could surpass or come near it. To store his treasure safely, he had a stone chamber built, one of its walls abutting on the outer side of his palace. But the builder of it shrewdly provided that one stone be so placed as to be easily removed by two men or even by one.

So when the chamber was finished, the king stored his treasure in it, and as time went on, the builder, drawing near the end of his life, summoned his sons (he had two) and told them how he had provided for them, that they have an ample livelihood, by the art with which he had built the king's treasure-house; explaining clearly to them how to remove the stone, he gave the coordinates of it, and told them that if they kept these in mind, they would be the custodians of the king's riches.

So when he was dead, his sons got to work at once: coming to the palace by night, they readily found and managed the stone in the building, and took away much of the treasure.

When the king opened the building, he was amazed to see the containers lacking their treasure; yet he did not know whom to accuse, seeing that the seals were unbroken and the building shut fast. But when less treasure appeared the second and third times he opened the building (for the thieves did not stop plundering), he had traps made and placed around the containers in which his riches were stored.

The thieves came just as before, and one of them crept in; when he came near the container, right away he was caught in the trap. When he saw the trouble he was in, he called to his brother right away and explained to him the problem, and told him to come in quickly and cut off his head, lest he be seen and recognized and destroy him, too. He seemed to have spoken rightly to the other, who did as he was persuaded and then, replacing the stone, went home, carrying his brother's head.

When day came, the king went to the building, and was amazed to see in the trap the thief's body without a head, yet the building intact, with no way in or out. At a loss, he did as follows: he suspended the thief's body from the wall and set guards over it, instructing them to seize and bring to him any whom they saw weeping or making lamentation.

But the thief's mother, when the body had been hung up, was terribly stricken: she had words with her surviving son, and told him that he was somehow to think of some way to cut loose and bring her his brother's body, and if he did not obey, she threatened to go to the king and denounce him as having the treasure.

So when his mother bitterly reproached the surviving son and for all that he said he could not dissuade her, he devised a plan: he harnessed asses and put skins full of wine on the asses, then set out driving them; and when he was near those who were guarding the hanging body, he pulled at the feet of two or three of the skins and loosed their fastenings;

and as the wine ran out, he beat his head and cried aloud like one who did not know to which ass he should turn first, while the guards, when they saw the wine flowing freely, ran out into the road with cups and caught what was pouring out, thinking themselves in luck;

feigning anger, the man cursed all; but as the guards addressed him peaceably, he pretended to be soothed and to relent in his anger, and finally drove his asses out of the road and put his harness in order.

And after more words passed and one joked with him and got him to laugh, he gave them one of the skins: and they lay down there just as they were, disposed to drink, and included him and told him to stay and drink with them; and he consented and stayed.

When they cheerily saluted him in their drinking, he gave them yet another of the skins; and the guards grew very drunk with the abundance of liquor, and lay down right there where they were drinking, overpowered by sleep;

but he, when it was late at night, cut down the body of his brother and shaved the right cheek of each of the guards for the indignity, and loading the body on his asses, drove home, fulfilling his mother's commands.

When the king learned that the body of the thief had been taken, he was beside himself and, obsessed with finding who it was who had managed this, did as follows—they say, but I do not believe it.

He put his own daughter in a brothel, instructing her to accept all alike and, before having intercourse, to make each tell her the shrewdest and most impious thing he had done in his life; whoever told her the story of the thief, she was to seize and not let get out.

The girl did as her father told her, and the thief, learning why she was doing this, did as follows, wanting to get the better of the king by craft.

He cut the arm off a fresh corpse at the shoulder, and went to the king's daughter, carrying it under his cloak, and when asked the same question as the rest, he said that his most impious act had been when he had cut the head off his brother who was caught in a trap in the king's treasury; and his shrewdest, that after making the guards drunk he had cut down his brother's hanging body.

When she heard this, the princess grabbed for him; but in the darkness the thief let her have the arm of the corpse; and clutching it, she held on, believing that she had the arm of the other; but the thief, after giving it to her, was gone in a flash out the door.

When this also came to the king's ears, he was astonished at the man's ingenuity and daring, and in the end, he sent a proclamation to every town, promising the thief immunity and a great reward if he would come into the king's presence.

The thief trusted the king and came before him; Rhampsinitus was very admiring and gave him his daughter to marry on the grounds that he was the cleverest of men; for as the Egyptians (he said) surpassed all others in craft, so he surpassed the Egyptians.

They said that later this king went down alive to what the Greeks call Hades and there played dice with Demeter, and after winning some and losing some, came back with a gift from her of a golden hand towel.

From the descent of Rhampsinitus, when he came back, they said that the Egyptians celebrate a festival, which I know that they celebrate to this day, but whether this is why they celebrate, I cannot say.

On the day of the festival, the priests weave a cloth and bind it as a headband on the eyes of one of their number, whom they then lead, wearing the cloth, into a road that goes to the temple of Demeter; they themselves go back, but this priest with his eyes bandaged is guided (they say) by two wolves to Demeter's temple, a distance of three miles from the city, and led back again from the temple by the wolves to the same place.

These Egyptian stories are for the benefit of whoever believes such tales: my rule in this history is that I record what is said by all as I have heard it. The Egyptians say that Demeter and Dionysus are the rulers of the lower world.

The Egyptians were the first who maintained the following doctrine, too, that the human soul is immortal, and at the death of the body enters into some other living thing then coming to birth; and after passing through all creatures of land, sea, and air, it enters once more into a human body at birth, a cycle which it completes in three thousand years.

There are Greeks who have used this doctrine, some earlier and some later, as if it were their own; I know their names, but do not record them.

They said that Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt until the time of King Rhampsinitus was altogether well-governed and prospered greatly, but that Kheops, who was the next king, brought the people to utter misery. For first he closed all the temples, so that no one could sacrifice there; and next, he compelled all the Egyptians to work for him.

To some, he assigned the task of dragging stones from the quarries in the Arabian mountains to the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile ; and after the stones were ferried across the river in boats, he organized others to receive and drag them to the mountains called Libyan.

They worked in gangs of a hundred thousand men, each gang for three months. For ten years the people wore themselves out building the road over which the stones were dragged, work which was in my opinion not much lighter at all than the building of the pyramid

(for the road is nearly a mile long and twenty yards wide, and elevated at its highest to a height of sixteen yards, and it is all of stone polished and carved with figures). The aforesaid ten years went to the building of this road and of the underground chambers in the hill where the pyramids stand; these, the king meant to be burial-places for himself, and surrounded them with water, bringing in a channel from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile .

The pyramid itself was twenty years in the making. Its base is square, each side eight hundred feet long, and its height is the same; the whole is of stone polished and most exactly fitted; there is no block of less than thirty feet in length.

This pyramid was made like stairs, which some call steps and others, tiers.

When this, its first form, was completed, the workmen used short wooden logs as levers to raise the rest of the stones ; they heaved up the blocks from the ground onto the first tier of steps;

when the stone had been raised, it was set on another lever that stood on the first tier, and the lever again used to lift it from this tier to the next.

It may be that there was a new lever on each tier of steps, or perhaps there was only one lever, quite portable, which they carried up to each tier in turn; I leave this uncertain, as both possibilities were mentioned.

But this is certain, that the upper part of the pyramid was finished off first, then the next below it, and last of all the base and the lowest part.

There are writings on the pyramid in Egyptian characters indicating how much was spent on radishes and onions and garlic for the workmen; and I am sure that, when he read me the writing, the interpreter said that sixteen hundred talents of silver had been paid.

Now if that is so, how much must have been spent on the iron with which they worked, and the workmen's food and clothing, considering that the time aforesaid was spent in building, while hewing and carrying the stone and digging out the underground parts was, as I suppose, a business of long duration.

And so evil a man was Kheops that, needing money, he put his own daughter in a brothel and made her charge a fee (how much, they did not say). She did as her father told her, but was disposed to leave a memorial of her own, and asked of each coming to her that he give one stone;

and of these stones they said the pyramid was built that stands midmost of the three, over against the great pyramid; each side of it measures one hundred and fifty feet.

The Egyptians said that this Kheops reigned for fifty years; at his death he was succeeded by his brother Khephren, who was in all respects like Kheops. Khephren also built a pyramid, smaller than his brother's. I have measured it myself.

It has no underground chambers, nor is it entered like the other by a canal from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , but the river comes in through a built passage and encircles an island, in which, they say, Kheops himself lies.

This pyramid was built on the same scale as the other, except that it falls forty feet short of it in height; it stands near the great pyramid; the lowest layer of it is of variegated Ethiopian stone. Both of them stand on the same ridge, which is about a hundred feet high. Khephren, they said, reigned for fifty-six years.

Thus, they reckon that for a hundred and six years Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt was in great misery and the temples so long shut were never opened. The people hate the memory of these two kings so much that they do not much wish to name them, and call the pyramids after the shepherd Philitis, who then pastured his flocks in this place.

The next king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , they said, was Kheops' son Mycerinus. Disliking his father's doings, he opened the temples and let the people, ground down to the depth of misery, go to their business and their sacrifices; and he was the most just judge among all the kings.

This is why he is praised above all the rulers of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; for not only were his judgments just, but Mycerinus would give any who were not satisfied with the judgment a present out of his own estate to compensate him for his loss.

Though mild toward his people and conducting himself as he did, yet he suffered calamities, the first of which was the death of his daughter, the only child of his household. Deeply grieved over this misfortune, he wanted to give her a burial somewhat more sumptuous than ordinary; he therefore made a hollow cow's image of gilded wood and placed the body of his dead daughter therein.

This cow was not buried in the earth but was to be seen even in my time, in the town of Saïs, where it stood in a furnished room of the palace; incense of all kinds is offered daily before it, and a lamp burns by it all through every night.

Near this cow in another chamber statues of Mycerinus' concubines stand, so the priests of Saïs said; and in fact there are about twenty colossal wooden figures there, made like naked women; but except what I was told, I cannot tell who these are.

But some tell the following story about the cow and the statues: that Mycerinus conceived a passion for his own daughter and then had intercourse with her against her will;

and they say that afterwards the girl strangled herself for grief, and that he buried her in this cow, but that her mother cut off the hands of the attendants who had betrayed the daughter to her father, and that now their statues are in the same condition as the living women were.

But this I believe to be a silly story, especially about the hands of the figures. For in fact we ourselves saw that the hands have fallen off through age, and were lying at their feet even in my day.

As for the cow, it is covered with a purple robe, only the head and neck exposed, encrusted with a very thick layer of gold. Between the horns is the golden figure of the sun's orb.

It does not stand, but kneels; it is as big as a live cow of great size. This image is carried out of the chamber once every year, whenever the Egyptians mourn the god whose name I omit in speaking of these matters:

then the cow is brought out into the light; for they say that before she died she asked her father, Mycerinus, that she see the sun once a year.

After what happened to his daughter, the following happened next to this king: an oracle came to him from the city of +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto , announcing that he had just six years to live and was to die in the seventh.

The king took this badly, and sent back to the oracle a message of reproach, blaming the god that his father and his uncle, though they had shut up the temples, and disregarded the gods, and destroyed men, had lived for a long time, but that he who was pious was going to die so soon.

But a second oracle came announcing that for this very reason his life was hastening to a close: he had done what was contrary to fate; Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt should have been afflicted for a hundred and fifty years, and the two kings before him knew this, but not he.

Hearing this, Mycerinus knew that his doom was fixed. Therefore, he had many lamps made, and would light these at nightfall and drink and enjoy himself, not letting up day or night, roaming to the marsh country and the groves and wherever he heard of the likeliest places of pleasure.

This was his recourse, so that by turning night into day he might make his six years into twelve and so prove the oracle false.

This king, too, left a pyramid, but far smaller than his father's, each side twenty feet short of three hundred feet long, square at the base, and as much as half its height of Ethiopian stone. Some Greeks say that it was built by Rhodopis, the courtesan, but they are wrong;

indeed, it is clear to me that they say this without even knowing who Rhodopis was (otherwise, they would never have credited her with the building of a pyramid on which what I may call an uncountable sum of money was spent), or that Rhodopis flourished in the reign of Amasis, not of Mycerinus;

for very many years later than these kings who left the pyramids came Rhodopis, who was Thracian by birth, and a slave of Iadmon son of Hephaestopolis the Samian, and a fellow-slave of Aesop the story-writer. For he was owned by Iadmon, too, as the following made crystal clear:

when the Delphians, obeying an oracle, issued many proclamations summoning anyone who wanted it to accept compensation for the killing of Aesop, no one accepted it except the son of Iadmon's son, another Iadmon; hence Aesop, too, was Iadmon's.

Rhodopis came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to work, brought by Xanthes of Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , but upon her arrival was freed for a lot of money by Kharaxus of Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) Mytilene , son of Scamandronymus and brother of Sappho the poetess.

Thus Rhodopis lived as a free woman in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , where, as she was very alluring, she acquired a lot of money—sufficient for such a Rhodopis, so to speak, but not for such a pyramid.

Seeing that to this day anyone who likes can calculate what one tenth of her worth was, she cannot be credited with great wealth. For Rhodopis desired to leave a memorial of herself in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece , by having something made which no one else had thought of or dedicated in a temple and presenting this at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi to preserve her memory;

so she spent one tenth of her substance on the manufacture of a great number of iron beef spits, as many as the tenth would pay for, and sent them to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi ; these lie in a heap to this day, behind the altar set up by the Chians and in front of the shrine itself.

The courtesans of Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Naucratis seem to be peculiarly alluring, for the woman of whom this story is told became so famous that every Greek knew the name of Rhodopis, and later on a certain Archidice was the theme of song throughout Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece , although less celebrated than the other.

Kharaxus, after giving Rhodopis her freedom, returned to Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) Mytilene . He is bitterly attacked by Sappho in one of her poems. This is enough about Rhodopis.

After Mycerinus, the priests said, Asukhis became king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . He built the eastern outer court of Hephaestus' temple; this is by far the finest and grandest of all the courts, for while all have carved figures and innumerable felicities of architecture, this court has far more than any.

As not much money was in circulation during this king's reign, they told me, a law was made for the Egyptians allowing a man to borrow on the security of his father's corpse; and the law also provided that the lender become master of the entire burial-vault of the borrower, and that the penalty for one giving this security, should he fail to repay the loan, was that he was not to be buried at his death either in that tomb of his fathers or in any other, nor was he to bury any relative of his there.

Furthermore, in his desire to excel all who ruled Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt before him, this king left a pyramid of brick to commemorate his name, on which is this writing, cut on a stone:

“Do not think me less than pyramids of stone; for I excel them as much as Zeus does other gods; for they stuck a pole down into a marsh and collected what mud clung to the pole, made bricks of it, and thus built me.” These were the acts of Asukhis.

After him reigned a blind man called Anysis, of the town of that name. In his reign Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt was invaded by Sabacos king of Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia and a great army of Ethiopians.

The blind man fled to the marshes, and the Ethiopian ruled Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt for fifty years, during which he distinguished himself for the following:

he would never put to death any Egyptian wrongdoer but sentenced all, according to the severity of their offenses, to raise embankments in their native towns. Thus the towns came to stand yet higher than before;

for after first being built on embankments made by the excavators of the canals in the reign of Sesostris, they were yet further raised in the reign of the Ethiopian.

Of the towns in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt that were raised, in my opinion, +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis is especially prominent, where there is also a temple of +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis , a building most worthy of note. Other temples are greater and more costly, but none more pleasing to the eye than this. +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis is, in the Greek language, Artemis.

Her temple is of this description: except for the entrance, it stands on an island; for two channels approach it from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile without mixing with one another, running as far as the entryway of the temple, the one and the other flowing around it, each a hundred feet wide and shaded by trees.

The outer court is sixty feet high, adorned with notable figures ten feet high. The whole circumference of the city commands a view down into the temple in its midst; for the city's level has been raised, but that of the temple has been left as it was from the first, so that it can be seen into from above.

A stone wall, cut with figures, runs around it; within is a grove of very tall trees growing around a great shrine where the image of the goddess is; the temple is a square, each side measuring an eighth of a mile.

A road, paved with stone, about three eighths of a mile long leads to the entrance, running eastward through the marketplace, towards the temple of Hermes; this road is about four hundred feet wide, and bordered by trees reaching to heaven. Such is this temple.

Now the departure of the Ethiopian (they said) came about in this way. After seeing in a dream one who stood over him and urged him to gather together all the Priests in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and cut them in half, he fled from the country.

Seeing this vision, he said, he supposed it to be a manifestation sent to him by the gods, so that he might commit sacrilege and so be punished by gods or men; he would not (he said) do so, but otherwise, for the time foretold for his rule over Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt was now fulfilled, after which he was to depart:

for when he was still in Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia , the oracles that are consulted by the people of that country told him that he was fated to reign fifty years over Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Seeing that this time was now completed and that he was troubled by what he saw in his dream, Sabacos departed from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt of his own volition.

When the Ethiopian left Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , the blind man (it is said) was king once more, returning from the marshes where he had lived for fifty years on an island that he built of ashes and earth; for the Egyptians who were to bring him food without the Ethiopian's knowledge were instructed by the king to bring ashes whenever they came, to add to their gift.

This island was never discovered before the time of Amyrtaeus; all the kings before him sought it in vain for more than seven hundred years. The name of it is Elbo, and it is over a mile long and of an equal breadth.

The next king was the priest of Hephaestus whose name was Sethos. He despised and had no regard for the warrior Egyptians, thinking he would never need them; besides otherwise dishonoring them, he took away the chosen lands which had been given to them, twelve fields to each man, in the reign of former kings.

So when presently king Sanacharib came against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , with a great force of Arabians and Assyrians, the warrior Egyptians would not march against him.

The priest, in this quandary, went into the temple shrine and there before the god's image bitterly lamented over what he expected to suffer. Sleep came on him while he was lamenting, and it seemed to him the god stood over him and told him to take heart, that he would come to no harm encountering the power of Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia : “I shall send you champions,” said the god.

So he trusted the vision, and together with those Egyptians who would follow him camped at +Pelusium (deserted settlement), Shamal Sina', Desert, Egypt, Africa Pelusium , where the road comes into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; and none of the warriors would go with him, but only merchants and craftsmen and traders.

Their enemies came there, too, and during the night were overrun by a horde of field mice that gnawed quivers and bows and the handles of shields, with the result that many were killed fleeing unarmed the next day.

And to this day a stone statue of the Egyptian king stands in Hephaestus' temple, with a mouse in his hand, and an inscription to this effect: “Look at me, and believe.”

Thus far went the record given by the Egyptians and their priests; and they showed me that the time from the first king to that priest of Hephaestus, who was the last, covered three hundred and forty-one generations, and that in this time this also had been the number of their kings, and of their high priests.

Now three hundred generations are ten thousand years, three generations being equal to a hundred. And over and above the three hundred, the remaining forty-one cover thirteen hundred and forty years.

Thus the whole period is eleven thousand three hundred and forty years; in all of which time (they said) they had had no king who was a god in human form, nor had there been any such either before or after those years among the rest of the kings of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Four times in this period (so they told me) the sun rose contrary to experience; twice he came up where he now goes down, and twice went down where he now comes up; yet Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt at these times underwent no change, either in the produce of the river and the land, or in the matter of sickness and death.

Hecataeus the historian was once at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes , where he made a genealogy for himself that had him descended from a god in the sixteenth generation. But the priests of Zeus did with him as they also did with me (who had not traced my own lineage).

They brought me into the great inner court of the temple and showed me wooden figures there which they counted to the total they had already given, for every high priest sets up a statue of himself there during his lifetime;

pointing to these and counting, the priests showed me that each succeeded his father; they went through the whole line of figures, back to the earliest from that of the man who had most recently died.

Thus, when Hecataeus had traced his descent and claimed that his sixteenth forefather was a god, the priests too traced a line of descent according to the method of their counting; for they would not be persuaded by him that a man could be descended from a god; they traced descent through the whole line of three hundred and forty-five figures, not connecting it with any ancestral god or hero, but declaring each figure to be a “Piromis” the son of a “Piromis”; in Greek, one who is in all respects a good man.

Thus they showed that all those whose statues stood there had been good men, but quite unlike gods.

Before these men, they said, the rulers of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt were gods, but none had been contemporary with the human priests. Of these gods one or another had in succession been supreme; the last of them to rule the country was Osiris' son Horus, whom the Greeks call Apollo; he deposed Typhon, and was the last divine king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Osiris is, in the Greek language, Dionysus.

Among the Greeks, Heracles, Dionysus, and Pan are held to be the youngest of the gods. But in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , Pan is the most ancient of these and is one of the eight gods who are said to be the earliest of all; Heracles belongs to the second dynasty (that of the so-called twelve gods); and Dionysus to the third, which came after the twelve.

How many years there were between Heracles and the reign of Amasis, I have already shown; Pan is said to be earlier still; the years between Dionysus and Amasis are the fewest, and they are reckoned by the Egyptians at fifteen thousand.

The Egyptians claim to be sure of all this, since they have reckoned the years and chronicled them in writing.

Now the Dionysus who was called the son of Semele, daughter of Cadmus, was about sixteen hundred years before my time, and Heracles son of Alcmene about nine hundred years; and Pan the son of Penelope (for according to the Greeks Penelope and Hermes were the parents of Pan) was about eight hundred years before me, and thus of a later date than the Trojan war.

With regard to these two, Pan and Dionysus, one may follow whatever story one thinks most credible; but I give my own opinion concerning them here. Had Dionysus son of Semele and Pan son of Penelope appeared in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas and lived there to old age, like Heracles the son of Amphitryon, it might have been said that they too (like Heracles) were but men, named after the older Pan and Dionysus, the gods of antiquity;

but as it is, the Greek story has it that no sooner was Dionysus born than Zeus sewed him up in his thigh and carried him away to +Nysa [28.1667,37.8667] (Perseus) Nysa in Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia beyond Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; and as for Pan, the Greeks do not know what became of him after his birth. It is therefore plain to me that the Greeks learned the names of these two gods later than the names of all the others, and trace the birth of both to the time when they gained the knowledge.

So far I have recorded what the Egyptians themselves say. I shall now relate what is recorded alike by Egyptians and foreigners, and shall add something of what I myself have seen.

After the reign of the priest of Hephaestus the Egyptians were made free. But they could never live without a king, so they divided Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt into twelve districts and set up twelve kings.

These kings intermarried, and agreed to be close friends, no one deposing another or seeking to possess more than another.

The reason for this agreement, which they scrupulously kept, was this: no sooner were they established in their districts than an oracle was given them that whichever of them poured a libation from a bronze vessel in the temple of Hephaestus (where, as in all the temples, they used to assemble) would be king of all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Moreover, they decided to preserve the memory of their names by a common memorial, and so they made a labyrinth a little way beyond Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa lake Moeris and near the place called the Kiman Faris [30.833,29.316] (deserted settlement), Al-Fayyum, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa City of Crocodiles . I have seen it myself, and indeed words cannot describe it;

if one were to collect the walls and evidence of other efforts of the Greeks, the sum would not amount to the labor and cost of this labyrinth. And yet the temple at +Ephesus [27.316,37.916] (deserted settlement), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Ephesus and the one on Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos are noteworthy.

Though the pyramids beggar description and each one of them is a match for many great monuments built by Greeks, this maze surpasses even the pyramids.

It has twelve roofed courts with doors facing each other: six face north and six south, in two continuous lines, all within one outer wall. There are also double sets of chambers, three thousand altogether, fifteen hundred above and the same number under ground.

We ourselves viewed those that are above ground, and speak of what we have seen, but we learned through conversation about the underground chambers; the Egyptian caretakers would by no means show them, as they were, they said, the burial vaults of the kings who first built this labyrinth, and of the sacred crocodiles.

Thus we can only speak from hearsay of the lower chambers; the upper we saw for ourselves, and they are creations greater than human. The exits of the chambers and the mazy passages hither and thither through the courts were an unending marvel to us as we passed from court to apartment and from apartment to colonnade, from colonnades again to more chambers and then into yet more courts.

Over all this is a roof, made of stone like the walls, and the walls are covered with cut figures, and every court is set around with pillars of white stone very precisely fitted together. Near the corner where the labyrinth ends stands a pyramid two hundred and forty feet high, on which great figures are cut. A passage to this has been made underground.

Such is this labyrinth; and still more marvellous is Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa lake Moeris , on which it stands. This lake has a circumference of four hundred and fifty miles, or sixty schoeni: as much as the whole seaboard of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Its length is from north to south; the deepest part has a depth of fifty fathoms.

That it has been dug out and made by men's hands the lake shows for itself; for almost in the middle of it stand two pyramids, so built that fifty fathoms of each are below and fifty above the water; atop each is a colossal stone figure seated on a throne.

Thus these pyramids are a hundred fathoms high; and a hundred fathoms equal a furlong of six hundred feet, the fathom measuring six feet or four cubits, the foot four spans and the cubit six spans.

The water of the lake is not natural (for the country here is exceedingly arid) but brought by a channel from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile ; six months it flows into the lake, and six back into the river.

For the six months that it flows out of the lake, the daily take of fish brings a silver talent into the royal treasury, and twenty minae for each day of the flow into the lake.

Furthermore, the natives said that this lake drains underground into the Golfe de Gabes [10.417,34.000] (gulf), Tunis, Africa Libyan Syrtis , and extends under the mountains that are above Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , having the inland country on its west.

When I could not see anywhere the earth taken from the digging of this lake, since this was curious to me, I asked those who live nearest the lake where the stuff was that had been dug out. They told me where it had been carried, and I readily believed them, for I had heard of a similar thing happening in the Assyrian city of Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus .

Sardanapallus king of Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus had great wealth, which he kept in an underground treasury. Some thieves plotted to carry it off; they surveyed their course and dug an underground way from their own house to the palace, carrying the earth taken out of the passage dug by night to the Tigris [47.416,31] (river), Asia Tigris , which runs past Nineveh (deserted settlement), Ninawa, Iraq, Asia Ninus , until at last they accomplished their end.

This, I was told, had happened when the Egyptian lake was dug, except that the work went on not by night but by day. The Egyptians bore the earth dug out by them to the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , to be caught and scattered (as was to be expected) by the river. Thus is this lake said to have been dug.

Now the twelve kings were just, and in time came to sacrifice in Hephaestus' temple. On the last day of the feast, as they were about to pour libations, the high priest brought out the golden vessels which they commonly used for this; but he counted wrongly and had only eleven for the twelve.

So the last in line, Psammetichus, as he had no vessel, took off his bronze helmet and held it out and poured the libation with it. All the kings were accustomed to wear helmets, and were then helmeted;

it was not in guile, then, that Psammetichus held out his headgear; but the rest perceived what Psammetichus had done, and remembered the oracle that promised the sovereignty of all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to whoever poured a libation from a vessel of bronze; therefore, though they considered Psammetichus not deserving of death (for they examined him and found that he had acted without intent), they decided to strip him of most of his power and to chase him away into the marshes, and that he was not to concern himself with the rest of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

This Psammetichus had formerly been in exile in +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria , where he had fled from Sabacos the Ethiopian, who killed his father Necos; then, when the Ethiopian departed because of what he saw in a dream, the Egyptians of the district of Saïs brought him back from +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria .

Psammetichus was king for the second time when he found himself driven away into the marshes by the eleven kings because of the helmet.

Believing, therefore, that he had been abused by them, he meant to be avenged on those who had expelled him. He sent to inquire in the town of +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto , where the most infallible oracle in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is; the oracle answered that he would have vengeance when he saw men of bronze coming from the sea.

Psammetichus did not in the least believe that men of bronze would come to aid him. But after a short time, Ionians and Carians, voyaging for plunder, were forced to put in on the coast of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , where they disembarked in their armor of bronze; and an Egyptian came into the marsh country and brought news to Psammetichus (for he had never before seen armored men) that men of bronze had come from the sea and were foraging in the plain.

Psammetichus saw in this the fulfillment of the oracle; he made friends with the Ionians and Carians, and promised them great rewards if they would join him and, having won them over, deposed the eleven kings with these allies and those Egyptians who volunteered.

Having made himself master of all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , he made the southern outer court of Hephaestus' temple at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , and built facing this a court for Apis, where Apis is kept and fed whenever he appears; this court has an inner colonnade all around it and many cut figures; the roof is held up by great statues twenty feet high for pillars. Apis in Greek is Epaphus.

To the Ionians and Carians who had helped him, Psammetichus gave places to live in called The Camps, opposite each other on either side of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile ; and besides this, he paid them all that he had promised.

Moreover, he put Egyptian boys in their hands to be taught Greek, and from these, who learned the language, are descended the present-day Egyptian interpreters.

The Ionians and Carians lived for a long time in these places, which are near the sea, on the arm of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile called the Pelusian, a little way below the town of +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis . Long afterwards, king Amasis removed them and settled them at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis to be his guard against the Egyptians.

It is a result of our communication with these settlers in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt (the first of foreign speech to settle in that country) that we Greeks have exact knowledge of the history of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt from the reign of Psammetichus onwards.

There still remained in my day, in the places out of which the Ionians and Carians were turned, the winches for their ships and the ruins of their houses. This is how Psammetichus got Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

I have often mentioned the Egyptian oracle, and shall give an account of this, as it deserves. This oracle is sacred to Leto, and is situated in a great city by the Sebennytic arm of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , on the way up from the sea.

+Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto is the name of the city where this oracle is; I have already mentioned it. In +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto there is a temple of Apollo and Artemis. The shrine of Leto where the oracle is, is itself very great, and its outer court is sixty feet high.

But what caused me the most wonder among the things apparent there I shall mention. In this precinct is the shrine of Leto, the height and length of whose walls is all made of a single stone slab; each wall has an equal length and height; namely, seventy feet. Another slab makes the surface of the roof, the cornice of which is seven feet broad.

Thus, then, the shrine is the most marvellous of all the things that I saw in this temple; but of things of second rank, the most wondrous is the island called +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Khemmis .

This lies in a deep and wide lake near the temple at +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto , and the Egyptians say that it floats. I never saw it float, or move at all, and I thought it a marvellous tale, that an island should truly float.

However that may be, there is a great shrine of Apollo on it, and three altars stand there; many palm trees grow on the island, and other trees too, some yielding fruit and some not.

This is the story that the Egyptians tell to explain why the island moves: that on this island that did not move before, Leto, one of the eight gods who first came to be, who was living at +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto where this oracle of hers is, taking charge of Apollo from Isis, hid him for safety in this island which is now said to float, when Typhon came hunting through the world, keen to find the son of Osiris.

Apollo and Artemis were (they say) children of Dionysus and Isis, and Leto was made their nurse and preserver; in Egyptian, Apollo is Horus, Demeter Isis, Artemis Bubastis.

It was from this legend and no other that Aeschylus son of Euphorion took a notion which is in no poet before him: that Artemis was the daughter of Demeter. For this reason the island was made to float. So they say.

Psammetichus ruled Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt for fifty-three years, twenty-nine of which he spent before +Ashdod (deserted settlement), Mehoz HaDarom, Israel, Asia Azotus , a great city in +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria , besieging it until he took it. +Ashdod (deserted settlement), Mehoz HaDarom, Israel, Asia Azotus held out against a siege longer than any city of which we know.

Psammetichus had a son, Necos, who became king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . It was he who began building the canal into the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea , which was finished by Darius the Persian. This is four days' voyage in length, and it was dug wide enough for two triremes to move in it rowed abreast.

It is fed by the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile , and is carried from a little above +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis by the Arabian town of Patumus; it issues into the Red Sea . Digging began in the part of the Egyptian plain nearest to Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia ; the mountains that extend to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis (the mountains where the stone quarries are) come close to this plain;

the canal is led along the foothills of these mountains in a long reach from west to east; passing then into a ravine, it bears southward out of the hill country towards the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia Arabian Gulf .

Now the shortest and most direct passage from the northern to the southern or +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea is from the Casian promontory, the boundary between Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria , to the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia Arabian Gulf , and this is a distance of one hundred and twenty five miles, neither more nor less;

this is the most direct route, but the canal is far longer, inasmuch as it is more crooked. In Necos' reign, a hundred and twenty thousand Egyptians died digging it. Necos stopped work, stayed by a prophetic utterance that he was toiling beforehand for the barbarian. The Egyptians call all men of other languages barbarians.

Necos, then, stopped work on the canal and engaged in preparations for war; some of his ships of war were built on the northern sea, and some in the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), Asia Arabian Gulf , by the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea coast: the winches for landing these can still be seen.

He used these ships when needed, and with his land army met and defeated the Syrians at Magdolus, taking the great Syrian city of Cadytis after the battle.

He sent to +Didyma [27.233,37.35] (historic site), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Branchidae of Miletus [27.3,37.5] (Perseus) Miletus and dedicated there to Apollo the garments in which he won these victories. Then he died after a reign of sixteen years, and his son Psammis reigned in his place.

While this Psammis was king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , he was visited by ambassadors from +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) Elis , the Eleans boasting that they had arranged the Olympic games with all the justice and fairness in the world, and claiming that even the Egyptians, although the wisest of all men, could not do better.

When the Eleans came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and announced why they had come, Psammis assembled the Egyptians reputed to be wisest. These assembled and learned all that the Eleans were to do regarding the games; after explaining this, the Eleans said that they had come to learn whether the Egyptians could discover any juster way.

The Egyptians deliberated, and then asked the Eleans if their own citizens took part in the contests. The Eleans answered that they did: all Greeks from +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) Elis or elsewhere might contend.

Then the Egyptians said that in establishing this rule they fell short of complete fairness: “For there is no way that you will not favor your own townsfolk in the contest and wrong the stranger; if you wish in fact to make just rules and have come to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt for that reason, you should admit only strangers to the contest, and not Eleans.” Such was the counsel of the Egyptians to the Eleans.

Psammis reigned over Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt for only six years; he invaded Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia , and immediately thereafter died, and Apries the son of Psammis reigned in his place.

He was more fortunate than any former king (except his great-grandfather Psammetichus) during his rule of twenty-five years, during which he sent an army against +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Sidon and fought at sea with the king of +Tyre [35.183,33.266] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Tyre .

But when it was fated that evil should overtake him, the cause of it was something that I will now deal with briefly, and at greater length in the Libyan part of this history.

Apries sent a great force against Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene and suffered a great defeat. The Egyptians blamed him for this and rebelled against him; for they thought that Apries had knowingly sent his men to their doom, so that after their perishing in this way he might be the more secure in his rule over the rest of the Egyptians. Bitterly angered by this, those who returned home and the friends of the slain openly revolted.

Hearing of this, Apries sent Amasis to dissuade them. When Amasis came up with the Egyptians, he exhorted them to desist; but as he spoke an Egyptian came behind him and put a helmet on his head, saying it was the token of royalty.

And Amasis showed that this was not displeasing to him, for after being made king by the rebel Egyptians he prepared to march against Apries.

When Apries heard of it, he sent against Amasis an esteemed Egyptian named Patarbemis, one of his own court, instructing him to take the rebel alive and bring him into his presence. When Patarbemis came and summoned Amasis, Amasis (who was on horseback) rose up and farted, telling the messenger to take that back to Apries.

But when in spite of this Patarbemis insisted that Amasis obey the king's summons and go to him, Amasis answered that he had long been preparing to do just that, and Apries would find him above reproach, for he would present himself, and bring others.

Hearing this, Patarbemis could not mistake Amasis; he saw his preparations and hastened to depart, the more quickly to make known to the king what was going on. When Apries saw him return without Amasis, he did not stop to reflect, but in his rage and fury had Patarbemis' ears and nose cut off.

The rest of the Egyptians, who were until now Apries' friends, seeing this outrage done to the man who was most prominent among them, changed sides without delay and offered themselves to Amasis.

Learning of this, too, Apries armed his guard and marched against the Egyptians; he had a bodyguard of Carians and Ionians, thirty thousand of them, and his royal palace was in the city of Saïs, a great and marvellous palace.

Apries' men marched against the Egyptians, and so did Amasis' men against the foreigners. So they both came to Momemphis and were going to make trial of one another.

The Egyptians are divided into seven classes: priests, warriors, cowherds, swineherds, merchants, interpreters, and pilots. There are this many classes, each named after its occupation.

The warriors are divided into Kalasiries and Hermotubies, and they belong to the following districts (for all divisions in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt are made according to districts).

The Hermotubies are from the districts of Busiris, Saïs, +Akhmim [31.733,26.566] (inhabited place), Sawhaj, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Khemmis , and Papremis, the island called Prosopitis, and half of Natho—from all of these; their number, at its greatest, attained to a hundred and sixty thousand. None of these has learned any common trade; they are free to follow the profession of arms alone.

The Kalasiries are from the districts of Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes , +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis , Aphthis, +San al-Hajar al-Qibliyah [31.866,30.966] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Tanis , Mendes, Sebennys, +Wannina (inhabited place), Al Qalyubiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Athribis , Pharbaïthis, Thmuis, Onuphis, Anytis, Myecphoris (this last is in an island opposite the city of +Tall Bastah [31.516,30.566] (deserted settlement), Ash Sharqiyah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Bubastis )—

from all of these; their number, at its greatest, attained to two hundred and fifty thousand men. These too may practise no trade but war, which is their hereditary calling.

Now whether this, too, the Greeks have learned from the Egyptians, I cannot confidently judge. I know that in Thrace (region (general)), Europe Thrace and Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia and Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia and Lydia [27.516,38.683] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lydia and nearly all foreign countries, those who learn trades are held in less esteem than the rest of the people, and those who have least to do with artisans' work, especially men who are free to practise the art of war, are highly honored.

This much is certain: that this opinion, which is held by all Greeks and particularly by the Lacedaemonians, is of foreign origin. It is in Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth that artisans are held in least contempt.

The warriors were the only Egyptians, except the priests, who had special privileges: for each of them an untaxed plot of twelve acres was set apart. This acre is a square of a hundred Egyptian cubits each way, the Egyptian cubit being equal to the Samian.

These lands were set apart for all; it was never the same men who cultivated them, but each in turn. A thousand Kalasiries and as many Hermotubies were the king's annual bodyguard. These men, besides their lands, each received a daily provision of five minae's weight of roast grain, two minae of beef, and four cups of wine. These were the gifts received by each bodyguard.

When Apries with his guards and Amasis with the whole force of Egyptians came to the town of Momemphis, they engaged; and though the foreigners fought well, they were vastly outnumbered, and therefore were beaten.

Apries, they say, supposed that not even a god could depose him from his throne, so firmly did he think he was established; and now, defeated in battle and taken captive, he was brought to Saïs, to the royal dwelling which belonged to him once but now belonged to Amasis.

There, he was kept alive for a while in the palace and well treated by Amasis. But presently the Egyptians complained that there was no justice in keeping alive one who was their own and their king's bitterest enemy; whereupon Amasis gave Apries up to them, and they strangled him and then buried him in the burial-place of his fathers.

This is in the temple of Athena, very near to the sanctuary, on the left of the entrance. The people of Saïs buried within the temple precinct all kings who were natives of their district.

The tomb of Amasis is farther from the sanctuary than the tomb of Apries and his ancestors; yet it, too, is within the temple court; it is a great colonnade of stone, richly adorned, the pillars made in the form of palm trees. In this colonnade are two portals, and the place where the coffin lies is within their doors.

There is also at Saïs the burial-place of one whose name I think it impious to mention in speaking of such a matter; it is in the temple of Athena, behind and close to the length of the wall of the shrine.

Moreover, great stone obelisks stand in the precinct; and there is a lake nearby, adorned with a stone margin and made in a complete circle; it is, as it seemed to me, the size of the lake at Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus) Delos which they call the Round Pond.

On this lake they enact by night the story of the god's sufferings, a rite which the Egyptians call the Mysteries. I could say more about this, for I know the truth, but let me preserve a discreet silence.

Let me preserve a discreet silence, too, concerning that rite of Demeter which the Greeks call Thesmophoria , except as much of it as I am not forbidden to mention.

The daughters of Danaus were those who brought this rite out of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and taught it to the Pelasgian women; afterwards, when the people of the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnese were driven out by the Dorians, it was lost, except in so far as it was preserved by the Arcadians, the Peloponnesian people which was not driven out but left in its home.

After Apries was deposed, Amasis became king; he was from a town called Siuph in the district of Saïs.

Now at first he was scorned and held in low regard by the Egyptians on the ground that he was a common man and of no high family; but presently he won them over by being shrewd and not arrogant.

He had among his countless treasures a golden washbowl, in which he and all those who ate with him were accustomed to clean their feet. This he broke in pieces and out of it made a god's image, which he set in a most conspicuous spot in the city; and the Egyptians came frequently to this image and held it in great reverence.

When Amasis learned what the townsfolk were doing, he called the Egyptians together and told them that the image had been made out of the washbowl, in which Egyptians had once vomited and urinated and cleaned their feet, but which now they greatly revered.

“Now then,” he said, “I have fared like the washbowl, since if before I was a common man, still, I am your king now.” And he told them to honor and show respect for him.

The following was how he scheduled his affairs: in the morning, until the the hour when the marketplace filled, he readily conducted whatever business was brought to him; the rest of the day, he drank and joked at the expense of his companions and was idle and playful.

But this displeased his friends, who admonished him thus: “O King, you do not conduct yourself well by indulging too much in vulgarity. You, a celebrated man, ought to conduct your business throughout the day, sitting on a celebrated throne; and thus the Egyptians would know that they are governed by a great man, and you would be better spoken of; as it is, what you do is by no means kingly.”

But he answered them like this: “Men that have bows string them when they must use them, and unstring them when they have used them; were bows kept strung forever, they would break, and so could not be used when needed.

Such, too, is the nature of man. Were one to be always at serious work and not permit oneself a bit of relaxation, he would go mad or idiotic before he knew it; I am well aware of that, and give each of the two its turn.” Such was his answer to his friends.

It is said that even when Amasis was a private man he was fond of drinking and joking and was not at all a sober man; and that when his drinking and pleasure-seeking cost him the bare necessities, he would go around stealing. Then when he contradicted those who said that he had their possessions, they would bring him to whatever place of divination was nearby, and sometimes the oracles declared him guilty and sometimes they acquitted him.

When he became king, he did not take care of the shrines of the gods who had acquitted him of theft, or give them anything for maintenance, or make it his practice to sacrifice there, for he knew them to be worthless and their oracles false; but he took scrupulous care of the gods who had declared his guilt, considering them to be gods in very deed and their oracles infallible.

Amasis made a marvellous outer court for the temple of Athena at Saïs, far surpassing all in its height and size, and in the size and quality of the stone blocks; moreover, he set up huge images and vast man-headed sphinxes, and brought enormous blocks of stone besides for the building.

Some of these he brought from the stone quarries of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis ; the largest came from the city of Elephantine, twenty days' journey distant by river from Saïs.

But what I admire most of his works is this: he brought from Elephantine a shrine made of one single block of stone; its transport took three years and two thousand men had the carriage of it, all of them pilots. This chamber is thirty-five feet long, twenty-three feet wide, thirteen feet high.

These are the external dimensions of the chamber which is made of one block; its internal dimensions are: thirty-one feet long, twenty feet wide, eight feet high. It stands at the entrance of the temple;

it was not dragged within (so they say) because while it was being drawn the chief builder complained aloud of the great expense of time and his loathing of the work, and Amasis taking this to heart would not let it be drawn further. Some also say that a man, one of those who heaved up the shrine, was crushed by it, and therefore it was not dragged within.

Furthermore, Amasis dedicated, besides monuments of marvellous size in all the other temples of note, the huge image that lies supine before Hephaestus' temple at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis ; this image is seventy-five feet in length; there stand on the same base, on either side of the great image, two huge statues hewn from the same block, each of them twenty feet high.

There is at Saïs another stone figure of like size, supine as is the figure at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis . It was Amasis, too, who built the great and most marvellous temple of Isis at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis .

It is said that in the reign of Amasis Egypt attained to its greatest prosperity, in respect of what the river did for the land and the land for its people: and that the number of inhabited cities in the country was twenty thousand.

It was Amasis also who made the law that every Egyptian declare his means of livelihood to the ruler of his district annually, and that omitting to do so or to prove that one had a legitimate livelihood be punishable with death. Solon the Athenian got this law from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and established it among his people; may they always have it, for it is a perfect law.

Amasis became a philhellene, and besides other services which he did for some of the Greeks, he gave those who came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt the city of Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Naucratis to live in; and to those who travelled to the country without wanting to settle there, he gave lands where they might set up altars and make holy places for their gods.

Of these the greatest and most famous and most visited precinct is that which is called the Hellenion, founded jointly by the Ionian cities of +Khios [26.116,38.383] (inhabited place), Chios, Khios, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Chios , +Teos [26.8,38.1667] (Perseus) Teos , +Foca [26.75,38.666] (inhabited place), Izmir Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Phocaea , and Klazomenai [26.7833,38.3167] (Perseus) Clazomenae , the Dorian cities of +Rhodes [28.216,36.433] (inhabited place), Rhodes, Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Rhodes , +Cnidus Nova [27.366,36.666] (deserted settlement), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Cnidus , Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Halicarnassus , and Phaselis, and one Aeolian city, Mytilene [26.55,39.1] (Perseus) Mytilene .

It is to these that the precinct belongs, and these are the cities that furnish overseers of the trading port; if any other cities advance claims, they claim what does not belong to them. The Aeginetans made a precinct of their own, sacred to Zeus; and so did the Samians for Hera and the Milesians for Apollo.

Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Naucratis was in the past the only trading port in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Whoever came to any other mouth of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile had to swear that he had not come intentionally, and had then to take his ship and sail to the Canobic mouth; or if he could not sail against contrary winds, he had to carry his cargo in barges around the Delta until he came to Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Naucratis . In such esteem was Kawm Juayf [30.583,30.9] (inhabited place), Al Buhayrah, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Naucratis held.

When the Amphictyons paid three hundred talents to have the temple that now stands at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi finished (as that which was formerly there burnt down by accident), it was the Delphians' lot to pay a fourth of the cost.

They went about from city to city collecting gifts, and got most from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; for Amasis gave them a thousand talents' weight of astringent earth, and the Greek settlers in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt twenty minae.

Amasis made friends and allies of the people of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene . And he decided to marry from there, either because he had his heart set on a Greek wife, or for the sake of the Corcyreans' friendship;

in any case, he married a certain Ladice, said by some to be the daughter of Battus, of Arcesilaus by others, and by others again of Critobulus, an esteemed citizen of the place. But whenever Amasis lay with her, he became unable to have intercourse, though he managed with every other woman;

and when this happened repeatedly, Amasis said to the woman called Ladice, “Woman, you have cast a spell on me, and there is no way that you shall avoid perishing the most wretchedly of all women.”

So Ladice, when the king did not relent at all although she denied it, vowed in her heart to Aphrodite that, if Amasis could have intercourse with her that night, since that would remedy the problem, she would send a statue to Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene to her. And after the prayer, immediately, Amasis did have intercourse with her. And whenever Amasis came to her thereafter, he had intercourse, and he was very fond of her after this.

Ladice paid her vow to the goddess; she had an image made and sent it to Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene , where it stood safe until my time, facing outside the city. Cambyses, when he had conquered Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and learned who Ladice was, sent her away to Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene unharmed.

Moreover, Amasis dedicated offerings in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . He gave to Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene a gilt image of Athena and a painted picture of himself; to Athena of Lindos [28.1083,36.0833] (Perseus) Lindus , two stone images and a marvellous linen breast-plate; and to Hera in Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , two wooden statues of himself that were still standing in my time behind the doors in the great shrine.

The offerings in Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos were dedicated because of the friendship between Amasis and Polycrates, son of Aeaces; what he gave to Lindos [28.1083,36.0833] (Perseus) Lindus was not out of friendship for anyone, but because the temple of Athena in Lindos [28.1083,36.0833] (Perseus) Lindus is said to have been founded by the daughters of Danaus, when they landed there in their flight from the sons of Egyptus. Such were Amasis' offerings. Moreover, he was the first conqueror of Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus , which he made tributary to himself.

Cyrus' son Cambyses was leading an army of his subjects, Ionian and Aeolian Greeks among them, against this Amasis for the following reason. Cambyses had sent a herald to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt asking Amasis for his daughter; he asked on the advice of an Egyptian, who advised it out of resentment against Amasis, that out of all the Egyptian physicians Amasis had dragged him away from his wife and children and sent him up to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia when Cyrus sent to Amasis asking for the best eye-doctor in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Out of resentment, the Egyptian by his advice induced Cambyses to ask Amasis for his daughter, so that Amasis would either be wretched if he gave her, or hated by Cambyses if he did not. Amasis, intimidated by the power of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia and frightened, could neither give his daughter nor refuse her; for he knew well that Cambyses was not going to take her as his wife but as his concubine.

After considering the matter, he did as follows. There was a daughter of the former king Apries, all that was left of that family, quite tall and pretty, and her name was Nitetis; this girl Amasis adorned with clothes and gold and sent to Cambyses as his own daughter.

But after a time, as he embraced her addressing her as the daughter of Amasis, the girl said to him, “O King, you do not understand how you have been made a fool of by Amasis, who dressed me in finery and sent me to you as his own daughter, when I am in fact the daughter of Apries, the ruler Amasis revolted from with the Egyptians and killed.”

This speech and this crime that occurred turned Cyrus' son Cambyses, furiously angry, against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . So the Persians say.

But the Egyptians, who say that Cambyses was the son of this daughter of Apries, claim him as one of theirs; they say that it was Cyrus who asked Amasis for his daughter, and not Cambyses.

But what they say is false. They are certainly not unaware (for if any understand the customs of the Persians the Egyptians do) firstly, that it is not their custom for illegitimate offspring to rule when there are legitimate offspring; and secondly, that Cambyses was the son of Cassandane, the daughter of Pharnaspes, who was an Achaemenid, and not of the Egyptian woman. But they falsify the story, pretending to be related to the house of Cyrus. That is the truth of the matter.

The following story, incredible to me, is also told: that one of the Persian women who came to visit Cyrus' wives, and saw the tall and attractive children who stood by Cassandane, expressed her admiration in extravagant terms. Then Cassandane, Cyrus' wife, said,

“Although I am the mother of such children, Cyrus dishonors me and honors his new woman from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .” So she spoke in her bitterness against Nitetis; and Cambyses, the eldest of her sons, said,

“Then, mother, when I am grown up, I will turn all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt upside down.” When he said this, he was about ten years old, and the women were amazed; but he kept it in mind, and it was thus that when he grew up and became king, he made the campaign against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

It so happened, too, that something else occurred contributing to this campaign. There was among Amasis' mercenaries a man who was a Halicarnassian by birth, a clever man and a good soldier, whose name was Phanes.

This Phanes had some grudge against Amasis, and fled from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt aboard ship, hoping to talk to Cambyses. Since he was a man much admired among the mercenaries and had an exact knowledge of all Egyptian matters, Amasis was anxious to catch him, and sent a trireme with his most trusted eunuch to pursue him. This eunuch caught him in +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lycia but never brought him back to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , for Phanes was too clever for him.

He made his guards drunk and so escaped to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia . There he found Cambyses prepared to set out against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , but in doubt as to his march, how he should cross the waterless desert; so Phanes showed him what was Amasis' condition and how he should march; as to this, he advised Cambyses to send and ask the king of the Arabians for a safe passage.

Now the only apparent way of entry into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt is this. The road runs from +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia as far as the borders of the city of Cadytis, which belongs to the so-called Syrians of +Palestine [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia Palestine .

From Cadytis (which, as I judge, is a city not much smaller than Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis ) to the city of Ienysus the seaports belong to the Arabians; then they are Syrian again from Ienysus as far as the Serbonian marsh, beside which the Casian promontory stretches seawards;

from this Serbonian marsh, where Typho is supposed to have been hidden, the country is Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Now between Ienysus and the Casian mountain and the Serbonian marsh there lies a wide territory for as much as three days' journey, terribly arid.

I am going to mention something now which few of those who sail to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt know. Earthen jars full of wine are brought into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt twice a year from all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece and +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia besides: yet one might safely say there is not a single empty wine jar anywhere in the country.

What then (one may ask) becomes of them? I shall explain this too. Each governor of a district must gather in all the earthen pots from his own township and take them to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , and the people of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis must fill them with water and carry them to those arid lands of +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria ; so the earthen pottery that is brought to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and unloaded or emptied there is carried to +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria to join the stock that has already been taken there.

Now as soon as the Persians took possession of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , they became the caretakers of the entryway into it, having it provisioned with water in the way I have described.

But at this time there was as yet no ready supply of water; and so Cambyses, hearing what was said by the stranger from Bodrum [27.466,37.5] (inhabited place), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Halicarnassus , sent messengers to the Arabian and asked and obtained safe conduct, giving to him and receiving from him pledges.

There are no men who respect pledges more than the Arabians. This is how they give them: a man stands between the two pledging parties, and with a sharp stone cuts the palms of their hands, near the thumb; then he takes a piece of wool from the cloak of each and smears with their blood seven stones that lie between them, meanwhile calling on Dionysus and the Heavenly Aphrodite;

after this is done, the one who has given his pledge commends the stranger (or his countryman if the other be one) to his friends, and his friends hold themselves bound to honor the pledge.

They believe in no other gods except Dionysus and the Heavenly Aphrodite; and they say that they wear their hair as Dionysus does his, cutting it round the head and shaving the temples. They call Dionysus, Orotalt; and Aphrodite, Alilat.

When, then, the Arabian had made the pledge to the messengers who had come from Cambyses, he devised the following expedient: he filled camel-skins with water and loaded all his camels with these; then he drove them into the waterless land and there awaited Cambyses' army.

This is the most credible of the stories told; but I must relate the less credible tale also, since they tell it. There is a great river in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia called Corys, emptying into the sea called Red.

From this river (it is said) the king of the Arabians brought water by an aqueduct made of sewn oxhides and other hides and extensive enough to reach to the dry country; and he had great tanks dug in that country to try to receive and keep the water.

It is a twelve days' journey from the river to that desert. By three aqueducts (they say) he brought the water to three different places.

Psammenitus, son of Amasis, was encamped by the mouth of the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), Africa Nile called Pelusian, awaiting Cambyses.

For when Cambyses marched against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , he found Amasis no longer alive; he had died after reigning forty-four years, during which he had suffered no great misfortune; and being dead he was embalmed and laid in the burial-place built for him in the temple.

While his son Psammenitus was king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , the people saw an extraordinary thing, namely, rain at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , where, as the Thebans themselves say, there had never been rain before, nor since to my lifetime; for indeed there is no rain at all in the upper parts of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; but at that time a drizzle of rain fell at Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes .

When the Persians had crossed the waterless country and encamped near the Egyptians intending to engage them, the Egyptian mercenaries, Greeks and Carians, devised a plan to punish Phanes, angered at him for leading a foreign army into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Phanes had left sons in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; these they brought to the camp, into their father's sight, and set a great bowl between the two armies; then they brought the sons one by one and cut their throats over the bowl.

When all the sons had been slaughtered, they poured wine and water into the bowl, and the mercenaries drank this and then gave battle. The fighting was fierce, and many of both armies fell; but at last the Egyptians were routed.

I saw a strange thing on the site of the battle, of which the people of the country had told me. The bones of those killed on either side in this fight lying scattered separately (for the Persian bones lay in one place and the Egyptian in another, where the armies had first separately stood), the skulls of the Persians are so brittle that if you throw no more than a pebble it will pierce them, but the Egyptian skulls are so strong that a blow of a stone will hardly crack them.

And this, the people said (which for my own part I readily believed), is the explanation of it: the Egyptians shave their heads from childhood, and the bone thickens by exposure to the sun.

This also is the reason why they do not grow bald; for nowhere can one see so few bald heads as in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

Their skulls then are strong for this reason; while the Persian skulls are weak because they cover their heads throughout their lives with the felt hats (called tiaras) which they wear. Such is the truth of the matter. I saw too the skulls of those Persians at Papremis who were killed with Darius' son Achaemenes by Inaros the Libyan, and they were like the others.

After their rout in the battle the Egyptians fled in disorder; and when they had been overtaken in Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , Cambyses sent a Persian herald up the river aboard a Mytilenean boat to invite the Egyptians to an accord.

But when they saw the boat coming to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , they sallied out all together from their walls, destroyed the boat, dismembered the crew (like butchers) and carried them within the walls.

So the Egyptians were besieged, and after a long while surrendered; but the neighboring Libyans, frightened by what had happened in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , surrendered without a fight, laying tribute on themselves and sending gifts; and so too did the people of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene and +Al Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Barca , frightened like the Libyans.

Cambyses received in all kindness the gifts of the Libyans; but he seized what came from Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene and, displeased, I think, because it was so little—for the Cyrenaeans had sent five hundred silver minae—cast it with his own hands among his army.

On the tenth day after the surrender of the walled city of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , Cambyses took Psammenitus king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , who had reigned for six months, and confined him in the outer part of the city with other Egyptians, to insult him; having confined him there, he tried Psammenitus' spirit, as I shall show.

He dressed the daughter of the king as a slave and sent her out with a pitcher to fetch water, together with other girls from the families of the leading men, dressed like the daughter of the king.

So when the girls went out before their fathers' eyes crying and lamenting, all the rest answered with cries and weeping, seeing their children abused; but Psammenitus, having seen with his own eyes and learned all, bowed himself to the ground.

After the water-carriers had passed by, Cambyses next made Psammenitus' son go out before him with two thousand Egyptians of the same age, all with ropes bound round their necks and bridle-bits in their mouths;

they were led out to be punished for those Mytileneans who had perished with their boat at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis ; for such was the judgment of the royal judges, that every man's death be paid for by the deaths of ten noble Egyptians.

When Psammenitus saw them passing and perceived that his son was being led out to die, and all the Egyptians who sat with him wept and showed their affliction, he did as he had done at the sight of his daughter.

After these too had gone out, it happened that there was one of his companions, a man past his prime, who had lost all his possessions, and had only what a poor man might have, and begged of the army; this man now went out before Psammenitus son of Amasis and the Egyptians confined in the outer part of the city. When Psammenitus saw him, he broke into loud weeping, striking his head and calling on his companion by name.

Now there were men set to watch Psammenitus, who told Cambyses all that he did as each went forth. Wondering at what the king did, Cambyses made this inquiry of him by a messenger:

“Psammenitus, Lord Cambyses wants to know why, seeing your daughter abused and your son going to his death, you did not cry out or weep, yet you showed such feeling for the beggar, who (as Cambyses learns from others) is not one of your kindred?” So the messenger inquired. Psammenitus answered:

“Son of Cyrus, my private grief was too great for weeping; but the unhappiness of my companion deserves tears—a man fallen from abundance and prosperity to beggary come to the threshold of old age.” When the messenger reported this, Cambyses and his court, it is said, thought the answer good.

And, the Egyptians say, Croesus wept (for it happened that he too had come with Cambyses to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ) and the Persians that were there wept; Cambyses himself felt some pity, and he ordered that Psammenitus' son be spared from those that were to be executed, and that Psammenitus himself be brought in from the outer part of the city and brought before him.

Those that went for him found that the son was no longer alive, but had been the first to be slaughtered; but they brought Psammenitus up and led him to Cambyses; and there he lived, and no violence was done him for the rest of his life.

And if he had known how to mind his own business, he would have regained Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to govern; for the Persians are inclined to honor kings' sons; even though kings revolt from them, they give back to their sons the sovereign power.

There are many instances showing that it is their custom so to do, and notably the giving back of his father's sovereign power to Thannyras son of Inaros, and also to Pausiris son of Amyrtaeus; yet none ever did the Persians more harm than Inaros and Amyrtaeus.

But as it was, Psammenitus plotted evil and got his reward; for he was caught raising a revolt among the Egyptians; and when Cambyses heard of it, Psammenitus drank bull's blood and died. Such was his end.

From Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis Cambyses went to the city Sais, anxious to do exactly what he did do. Entering the house of Amasis, he had the body of Amasis carried outside from its place of burial; and when this had been done, he gave orders to scourge it and pull out the hair and pierce it with goads, and to desecrate it in every way.

When they were weary of doing this (for the body, being embalmed, remained whole and did not fall to pieces), Cambyses gave orders to burn it, a sacrilegious command; for the Persians hold fire to be a god;

therefore neither nation thinks it right to burn the dead, the Persians for the reason given, as they say it is wrong to give the dead body of a man to a god; while the Egyptians believe fire to be a living beast that devours all that it catches, and when sated with its meal dies together with that on which it feeds.

Now it is by no means their custom to give the dead to beasts; and this is why they embalm the corpse, that it may not lie and feed worms. Thus what Cambyses commanded was contrary to the custom of both peoples.

The Egyptians say, however, that it was not Amasis to whom this was done, but another Egyptian of the same age as Amasis, whom the Persians abused thinking that they were abusing Amasis.

For their story is that Amasis learned from an oracle what was to be done to him after his death, and so to escape this fate buried this dead man, the one that was scourged, near the door inside his own vault, and ordered his son that he himself should be laid in the farthest corner of the vault.

I think that these commands of Amasis, regarding the burial-place and the man, were never given at all, and that the Egyptians believe in them in vain.

After this Cambyses planned three expeditions, against the Carchedonians, against the Ammonians, and against the “long-lived” Ethiopians, who inhabit that part of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya that is on the southern sea.

He decided after consideration to send his fleet against the Carthaginians and a part of his land army against the Ammonians; to Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia he would first send spies, to see what truth there was in the story of a Table of the Sun in that country, and to spy out all else besides, under the pretext of bringing gifts for the Ethiopian king.

Now the Table of the Sun is said to be something of this kind: there is a meadow outside the city, filled with the boiled flesh of all four-footed things; here during the night the men of authority among the townsmen are careful to set out the meat, and all day whoever wishes comes and feasts on it. These meats, say the people of the country, are ever produced by the earth of itself. Such is the story of the Sun's Table.

When Cambyses determined to send the spies, he sent for those Fish-eaters from the city of Elephantine who understood the Ethiopian language.

While they were fetching them, he ordered his fleet to sail against +Carthage [10.3333,36.8667] (Perseus) Carthage . But the Phoenicians said they would not do it; for they were bound, they said, by strong oaths, and if they sailed against their own progeny they would be doing an impious thing; and the Phoenicians being unwilling, the rest were inadequate fighters.

Thus the Carthaginians escaped being enslaved by the Persians; for Cambyses would not use force with the Phoenicians, seeing that they had willingly surrendered to the Persians, and the whole fleet drew its strength from them. The Cyprians too had come of their own accord to aid the Persians against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt .

When the Fish-eaters arrived from Elephantine at Cambyses' summons, he sent them to Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia , with orders what to say, and bearing as gifts a red cloak and a twisted gold necklace and bracelets and an alabaster box of incense and an earthenware jar of palm wine. These Ethiopians, to whom Cambyses sent them, are said to be the tallest and most handsome of all men.

Their way of choosing kings is different from that of all others, as (it is said) are all their laws; they consider that man worthy to be their king whom they judge to be tallest and to have strength proportional to his stature.

When the Fish-eaters arrived among these men, they gave the gifts to their king and said: “Cambyses, the king of the Persians, wishing to become your friend and ally, sent us with orders to address ourselves to you; and he offers you as gifts these things which he enjoys using himself.”

But the Ethiopian, perceiving that they had come as spies, spoke thus to them: “It is not because he values my friendship that the Persian King sends you with gifts, nor do you speak the truth (for you have come to spy on my realm), nor is that man just; for were he just, he would not have coveted a land other than his own, nor would he try to lead into slavery men by whom he has not been injured. Now, give him this bow, and this message:

‘The King of the Ethiopians advises the King of the Persians to bring overwhelming odds to attack the long-lived Ethiopians when the Persians can draw a bow of this length as easily as I do; but until then, to thank the gods who do not incite the sons of the Ethiopians to add other land to their own.’”

So speaking he unstrung the bow and gave it to the men who had come. Then, taking the red cloak, he asked what it was and how it was made; and when the Fish-eaters told him the truth about the color and the process of dyeing, he said that both the men and their garments were full of deceit.

Next he inquired about the twisted gold necklace and the bracelets; and when the Fish-eaters told him how they were made, the king smiled, and, thinking them to be fetters, said: “We have stronger chains than these.”

Thirdly he inquired about the incense; and when they described making and applying it, he made the same reply as about the cloak. But when he came to the wine and asked about its making, he was vastly pleased with the drink, and asked further what food their king ate, and what was the greatest age to which a Persian lived.

They told him their king ate bread, showing him how wheat grew; and said that the full age to which a man might hope to live was eighty years. Then, said the Ethiopian, it was no wonder that they lived so few years, if they ate dung; they would not even have been able to live that many unless they were refreshed by the drink—signifying to the Fish-eaters the wine—for in this, he said, the Persians excelled the Ethiopians.

The Fish-eaters then in turn asking of the Ethiopian length of life and diet, he said that most of them attained to a hundred and twenty years, and some even to more; their food was boiled meat and their drink milk.

The spies showed wonder at the tale of years; whereupon he led them, it is said, to a spring, by washing in which they grew sleeker, as though it were of oil; and it smelled of violets.

So light, the spies said, was this water, that nothing would float on it, neither wood nor anything lighter than wood, but all sank to the bottom. If this water is truly such as they say, it is likely that their constant use of it makes the people long-lived.

When they left the spring, the king led them to a prison where all the men were bound with fetters of gold. Among these Ethiopians there is nothing so scarce and so precious as bronze. Then, having seen the prison, they saw what is called the Table of the Sun.

Last after this they viewed the Ethiopian coffins; these are said to be made of alabaster, as I shall describe:

they cause the dead body to shrink, either as the Egyptians do or in some other way, then cover it with gypsum and paint it all as far as possible in the likeness of the living man;

then they set it within a hollow pillar of alabaster, which they dig in abundance from the ground, and it is easily worked; the body can be seen in the pillar through the alabaster, no evil stench nor anything unpleasant proceeding from it, and showing clearly all its parts, as if it were the man himself.

The nearest of kin keep the pillar in their house for a year, giving it of the first-fruits and offering it sacrifices; after which they bring the pillars out and set them round about the city.

Having seen everything, the spies departed again. When they reported all this, Cambyses was angry, and marched at once against the Ethiopians, neither giving directions for any provision of food nor considering that he was about to lead his army to the ends of the earth;

being not in his right mind but mad, however, he marched at once on hearing from the Fish-eaters, ordering the Greeks who were with him to await him where they were, and taking with him all his land army.

When he came in his march to Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes , he detached about fifty thousand men from his army, and directed them to enslave the Ammonians and burn the oracle of Zeus; and he himself went on towards Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia with the rest of his host.

But before his army had accomplished the fifth part of their journey they had come to an end of all there was in the way of provision, and after the food was gone, they ate the beasts of burden until there was none of these left either.

Now had Cambyses, when he perceived this, changed his mind and led his army back again, he would have been a wise man at last after his first fault; but as it was, he went ever forward, taking account of nothing.

While his soldiers could get anything from the earth, they kept themselves alive by eating grass; but when they came to the sandy desert, some did a terrible thing, taking by lot one man out of ten and eating him.

Hearing this, Cambyses feared their becoming cannibals, and so gave up his expedition against the Ethiopians and marched back to Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes , with the loss of many of his army; from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes he came down to Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , and sent the Greeks to sail away.

So fared the expedition against Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia . As for those who were sent to march against the Ammonians, they set out and journeyed from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes with guides; and it is known that they came to the city of Oasis, inhabited by Samians said to be of the Aeschrionian tribe, seven days' march from Thebes [32.666,25.683] (deserted settlement), Qina, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Thebes across sandy desert; this place is called, in the Greek language, Islands of the Blest.

Thus far, it is said, the army came; after that, except for the Ammonians themselves and those who heard from them, no man can say anything of them; for they neither reached the Ammonians nor returned back.

But this is what the Ammonians themselves say: when the Persians were crossing the sand from Oasis to attack them, and were about midway between their country and Oasis, while they were breakfasting a great and violent south wind arose, which buried them in the masses of sand which it bore; and so they disappeared from sight. Such is the Ammonian tale about this army.

When Cambyses was back at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , there appeared in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt that Apis whom the Greeks call Epaphus; at whose epiphany the Egyptians put on their best clothing and held a festival.

Seeing the Egyptians so doing, Cambyses was fully persuaded that these signs of joy were for his misfortunes, and summoned the rulers of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis ; when they came before him, he asked them why the Egyptians behaved so at the moment he returned with so many of his army lost, though they had done nothing like it when he was before at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis .

The rulers told him that a god, wont to appear after long intervals of time, had now appeared to them; and that all Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt rejoiced and made holiday whenever he so appeared. At this Cambyses said that they lied, and he punished them with death for their lie.

Having put them to death, he next summoned the priests before him. When they gave him the same account, he said that if a tame god had come to the Egyptians he would know it; and with no more words he bade the priests bring Apis. So they went to fetch and bring him.

This Apis, or Epaphus, is a calf born of a cow that can never conceive again. By what the Egyptians say, the cow is made pregnant by a light from heaven, and thereafter gives birth to Apis.

The marks of this calf called Apis are these: he is black, and has on his forehead a three-cornered white spot, and the likeness of an eagle on his back; the hairs of the tail are double, and there is a knot under the tongue.

When the priests led Apis in, Cambyses—for he was all but mad—drew his dagger and, meaning to stab the calf in the belly, stuck the thigh; then laughing he said to the priests:

“Simpletons, are these your gods, creatures of flesh and blood that can feel weapons of iron? That is a god worthy of the Egyptians. But for you, you shall suffer for making me your laughing-stock.” So saying he bade those, whose business it was, to scourge the priests well, and to kill any other Egyptian whom they found holiday-making.

So the Egyptian festival ended, and the priests were punished, and Apis lay in the temple and died of the wound in the thigh. When he was dead of the wound, the priests buried him without Cambyses' knowledge.

But Cambyses, the Egyptians say, owing to this wrongful act immediately went mad, although even before he had not been sensible. His first evil act was to destroy his full brother Smerdis, whom he had sent away from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia out of jealousy, because Smerdis alone could draw the bow brought from the Ethiopian by the Fish-eaters as far as two fingerbreadths, but no other Persian could draw it.

Smerdis having gone to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , Cambyses saw in a dream a vision, in which it seemed to him that a messenger came from Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia and told him that Smerdis sitting on the royal throne touched heaven with his head.

Fearing therefore for himself, lest his brother might slay him and so be king, he sent Prexaspes, the most trusted of his Persians, to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia to kill him. Prexaspes went up to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa and killed Smerdis; some say that he took Smerdis out hunting, others that he brought him to the Red Sea and there drowned him.

This, they say, was the first of Cambyses' evil acts; next, he destroyed his full sister, who had come with him to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and whom he had taken to wife.

He married her in this way (for before this, it had by no means been customary for Persians to marry their sisters): Cambyses was infatuated with one of his sisters and when he wanted to marry her, because his intention was contrary to usage, he summoned the royal judges and inquired whether there were any law enjoining one, that so desired, to marry his sister.

These royal judges are men chosen out from the Persians to function until they die or are detected in some injustice; it is they who decide suits in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia and interpret the laws of the land; all matters are referred to them.

These then replied to Cambyses with an answer which was both just and prudent, namely, that they could find no law enjoining a brother to marry his sister; but that they had found a law permitting the King of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia to do whatever he liked.

Thus, although they feared Cambyses they did not break the law, and, to save themselves from death for keeping it, they found another law abetting one who wished to marry sisters.

So Cambyses married the object of his desire; yet not long afterwards he took another sister as well. It was the younger of these who had come with him to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , and whom he now killed.

There are two tales of her death, as there are of the death of Smerdis. The Greeks say that Cambyses had set a lion cub to fight a puppy, and that this woman was watching too; and that as the puppy was losing, its brother broke its leash and came to help, and the two dogs together got the better of the cub.

Cambyses, they say, was pleased with the sight, but the woman wept as she sat by. Cambyses perceiving it asked why she wept, and she said that when she saw the puppy help its brother she had wept, recalling Smerdis and knowing that there would be no avenger for him.

For saying this, according to the Greek story, she was killed by Cambyses. But the Egyptian tale is that as the two sat at table the woman took a lettuce and plucked off the leaves, then asked her husband whether he preferred the look of it with or without leaves. “With the leaves,” he said; whereupon she answered:

“Yet you have stripped Cyrus' house as bare as this lettuce.” Angered at this, they say, he sprang upon her, who was great with child, and she miscarried and died of the hurt he gave her.

Such were Cambyses' mad acts to his own household, whether they were done because of Apis or grew from some of the many troubles that are wont to beset men; for indeed he is said to have been afflicted from his birth with that grievous disease which some call “sacred.” It is not unlikely then that when his body was grievously afflicted his mind too should be diseased.

I will now relate his mad dealings with the rest of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia . He said, as they report, to Prexaspes—whom he held in particular honor, who brought him all his messages, whose son held the very honorable office of Cambyses' cup-bearer—thus, I say, he spoke to Prexaspes:

“What manner of man, Prexaspes, do the Persians think me to be, and how do they speak of me?” “Sire,” said Prexaspes, “for all else they greatly praise you, but they say that you love wine too well.”

So he reported of the Persians. The king angrily replied: “If the Persians now say that it is my fondness for wine that drives me to frenzy and madness, then it would seem that their former saying also was a lie.”

For it is said that before this, while some Persians and Croesus were sitting with him, Cambyses asked what manner of man they thought him to be in comparison with Cyrus his father; and they answered, “Cambyses was the better man; for he had all of Cyrus' possessions and had won Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and the sea besides.”

So said the Persians; but Croesus, who was present, and was dissatisfied with their judgment, spoke thus to Cambyses: “To me, son of Cyrus, you do not seem to be the equal of your father; for you have as yet no son such as he left after him in you.” This pleased Cambyses, and he praised Croesus' judgment.

Remembering this, then, he said to Prexaspes in his anger: “Judge then if the Persians speak the truth, or rather are themselves out of their minds when they speak of me so.

Yonder stands your son in the porch; now if I shoot and pierce his heart, that will prove the Persians to be wrong; if I miss, then say that they are right and that I am out of my senses.”

So saying, he strung his bow and hit the boy, and gave orders to open the fallen body and examine the wound: and the arrow being found in the heart, Cambyses laughed in great glee and said to the boy's father:

“It is plain, Prexaspes, that I am in my right mind and the Persians mad; now tell me: what man in the world did you ever see that shot so true to the mark?” Prexaspes, it is said, replied (for he saw that Cambyses was mad, and he feared for his own life), “Master, I think that not even the god himself could shoot so true.”

Thus did Cambyses then; at another time he took twelve Persians, equal to the noblest in the land, convicted them of some minor offense, and buried them alive up to the neck.

For these acts Croesus the Lydian thought fit to take him to task, and addressed him thus: “Sire, do not sacrifice everything to youth and temper, but restrain and control yourself; prudence is a good thing, forethought is wise. But you kill men of your own country whom you have convicted of some minor offense, and you kill boys.

If you do so often, beware lest the Persians revolt from you. As for me, your father Cyrus earnestly begged me to counsel you and to give you such advice as I think to be good.” Croesus gave him this counsel out of goodwill; but Cambyses answered:

“It is very well that you should even dare to counsel me; you, who governed your own country so well, and gave fine advice to my father—telling him, when the Massagetae were willing to cross over into our lands, to pass the Araxes and attack them; thus you worked your own ruin by misgoverning your country and Cyrus', who trusted you. But you shall regret it; I have long waited for an occasion to deal with you.”

With that Cambyses took his bow to shoot him dead; but Croesus leapt up and ran out; and Cambyses, being unable to shoot him, ordered his attendants to catch and kill him.

They, knowing Cambyses' mood, hid Croesus; intending to reveal him and receive gifts for saving his life, if Cambyses should repent and ask for Croesus, but if he should not repent nor wish Croesus back, then to kill the Lydian.

Not long after this Cambyses did wish Croesus back, and the attendants, understanding this, told him that Croesus was alive still. Cambyses said that he was glad of it; but that they, who had saved Croesus, should not escape with impunity, but be killed; and this was done.

Cambyses committed many such mad acts against the Persians and his allies; he stayed at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis , and there opened ancient coffins and examined the dead bodies.

Thus too he entered the temple of Hephaestus and jeered at the image there. This image of Hephaestus is most like the Phoenician Pataici, which the Phoenicians carry on the prows of their triremes. I will describe it for anyone who has not seen these figures: it is the likeness of a dwarf.

Also he entered the temple of the Cabeiri, into which no one may enter save the priest; the images here he even burnt, with bitter mockery. These also are like the images of Hephaestus, and are said to be his sons.

I hold it then in every way proved that Cambyses was quite insane; or he would never have set himself to deride religion and custom. For if it were proposed to all nations to choose which seemed best of all customs, each, after examination, would place its own first; so well is each convinced that its own are by far the best.

It is not therefore to be supposed that anyone, except a madman, would turn such things to ridicule. I will give this one proof among many from which it may be inferred that all men hold this belief about their customs.

When Darius was king, he summoned the Greeks who were with him and asked them for what price they would eat their fathers' dead bodies. They answered that there was no price for which they would do it.

Then Darius summoned those Indians who are called Callatiae, who eat their parents, and asked them (the Greeks being present and understanding through interpreters what was said) what would make them willing to burn their fathers at death. The Indians cried aloud, that he should not speak of so horrid an act. So firmly rooted are these beliefs; and it is, I think, rightly said in Pindar's poem that custom is lord of all.

While Cambyses was attacking Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , the Lacedaemonians too were making war upon Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos and upon Aeaces' son Polycrates, who had revolted and won Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos .

And first, dividing the city into three parts, he gave a share in the government to his brothers Pantagnotus and Syloson; but presently he put one of them to death, banished the younger, Syloson, and so made himself lord of all Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos ; then he made a treaty with Amasis king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , sending to him and receiving from him gifts.

Very soon after this, Polycrates grew to such power that he was famous in Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia and all other Greek lands; for all his military affairs succeeded. He had a hundred fifty-oared ships, and a thousand archers.

And he pillaged every place, indiscriminately; for he said that he would get more thanks if he gave a friend back what he had taken than if he never took it at all. He had taken many of the islands, and many of the mainland cities. Among others, he conquered the Lesbians; they had brought all their force to aid the Milesians, and Polycrates defeated them in a sea-fight; it was they who, being his captives, dug all the trench around the acropolis of Samos [26.966,37.766] (inhabited place), Nisos Samos, Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos .

Now Amasis was somehow aware of Polycrates' great good fortune; and as this continued to increase greatly, he wrote this letter and sent it to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos : “Amasis addresses Polycrates as follows.

It is pleasant to learn that a friend and ally is doing well. But I do not like these great successes of yours; for I know the gods, how jealous they are, and I desire somehow that both I and those for whom I care succeed in some affairs, fail in others, and thus pass life faring differently by turns, rather than succeed at everything.

For from all I have heard I know of no man whom continual good fortune did not bring in the end to evil, and utter destruction. Therefore if you will be ruled by me do this regarding your successes:

consider what you hold most precious and what you will be sorriest to lose, and cast it away so that it shall never again be seen among men; then, if after this the successes that come to you are not mixed with mischances, strive to mend the matter as I have counselled you.”

Reading this, and perceiving that Amasis' advice was good, Polycrates considered which of his treasures it would most grieve his soul to lose, and came to this conclusion: he wore a seal set in gold, an emerald, crafted by Theodorus son of Telecles of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos ;

being resolved to cast this away, he embarked in a fifty-oared ship with its crew, and told them to put out to sea; and when he was far from the island, he took off the seal-ring in sight of all that were on the ship and cast it into the sea. This done, he sailed back and went to his house, where he grieved for the loss.

But on the fifth or sixth day from this it happened that a fisherman, who had taken a fine and great fish, and desired to make a gift of it to Polycrates, brought it to the door and said that he wished to see Polycrates. This being granted, he gave the fish, saying:

“O King, when I caught this fish, I thought best not to take it to market, although I am a man who lives by his hands, but it seemed to me worthy of you and your greatness; and so I bring and offer it to you.” Polycrates was pleased with what the fisherman said; “You have done very well,” he answered, “and I give you double thanks, for your words and for the gift; and I invite you to dine with me.”

Proud of this honor, the fisherman went home; but the servants, cutting up the fish, found in its belly Polycrates' seal-ring.

As soon as they saw and seized it, they brought it with joy to Polycrates, and giving the ring to him told him how it had been found. Polycrates saw the hand of heaven in this matter; he wrote a letter and sent it to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , telling all that he had done, and what had happened to him.

When Amasis had read Polycrates' letter, he perceived that no man could save another from his destiny, and that Polycrates, being so continually fortunate that he even found what he cast away, must come to an evil end.

So he sent a herald to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos to renounce his friendship, determined that when some great and terrible mischance overtook Polycrates he himself might not have to sadden his heart for a friend.

It was against this ever-victorious Polycrates that the Lacedaemonians now made war, invited by the Samians who afterwards founded +Khania [24.33,35.516] (inhabited place), Canea, Crete, Greece, Europe Cydonia in +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete . Polycrates had without the knowledge of his subjects sent a herald to Cambyses, son of Cyrus, then raising an army against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , inviting Cambyses to send to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos too and request men from him.

At this message Cambyses very readily sent to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , asking Polycrates to send a fleet to aid him against Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Polycrates chose those men whom he most suspected of planning a rebellion against him, and sent them in forty triremes, directing Cambyses not to send the men back.

Some say that these Samians who were sent never came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , but that when they had sailed as far as +Carpathos [27.166,35.666] (island), Sporades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Carpathus discussed the matter among themselves and decided to sail no further; others say that they did come to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and there escaped from the guard that was set over them.

But as they sailed back to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , Polycrates' ships met and engaged them; and the returning Samians were victorious and landed on the island, but were there beaten in a land battle, and so sailed to Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon .

There are those who say that the Samians from Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt defeated Polycrates; but to my thinking this is untrue; for they need not have invited the Lacedaemonians if in fact they had been able to master Polycrates by themselves. Besides, it is not even reasonable to suppose that he, who had a great army of hired soldiers and bowmen of his own, was beaten by a few men like the returning Samians.

Polycrates took the children and wives of the townsmen who were subject to him and shut them up in the boathouses, with intent to burn them and the boathouses too if their men should desert to the returned Samians.

When the Samians who were expelled by Polycrates came to Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , they came before the ruling men and made a long speech to show the greatness of their need. But the Spartans at their first sitting answered that they had forgotten the beginning of the speech and could not understand its end.

After this the Samians came a second time with a sack, and said nothing but this: “The sack wants flour.” To this the Spartans replied that they were over-wordy with “the sack”; but they did resolve to help them.

The Lacedaemonians then equipped and sent an army to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , returning a favor, as the Samians say, because they first sent a fleet to help the Lacedaemonians against +Nomos Messinias [21.833,37.25] (department), Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Messenia ; but the Lacedaemonians say that they sent this army less to aid the Samians in their need than to avenge the robbery of the bowl which they had been carrying to Croesus and the breastplate which Amasis King of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt had sent them as a gift.

This breastplate had been stolen by the Samians in the year before they took the bowl; it was of linen, decked with gold and cotton embroidery, and embroidered with many figures;

but what makes it worthy of wonder is that each thread of the breastplate, fine as each is, is made up of three hundred and sixty strands, each plainly seen. It is the exact counterpart of that one which Amasis dedicated to Athena in Lindos [28.1083,36.0833] (Perseus) Lindus .

The Corinthians also enthusiastically helped to further the expedition against Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos . For an outrage had been done them by the Samians a generation before this expedition, about the time of the robbery of the bowl.

Periander son of Cypselus sent to Alyattes at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis three hundred boys, sons of notable men in +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe Corcyra , to be made eunuchs. The Corinthians who brought the boys put in at Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos ; and when the Samians heard why the boys were brought, first they instructed them to take sanctuary in the temple of Artemis,

then they would not allow the suppliants to be dragged from the temple; and when the Corinthians tried to starve the boys out, the Samians held a festival which they still celebrate in the same fashion; throughout the time that the boys were seeking asylum, they held nightly dances of young men and women to which it was made a custom to bring cakes of sesame and honey, so that the Corcyraean boys might snatch these and have food.

This continued to be done until the Corinthian guards left their charge and departed; then the Samians took the boys back to +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe Corcyra .

If after the death of Periander, the Corinthians had been friendly towards the Corcyraeans, they would not have taken part in the expedition against Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos for this reason. But as it was, ever since the island was colonized, they have been at odds with each other, despite their kinship.

For these reasons then the Corinthians bore a grudge against the Samians. Periander chose the sons of the notable Corcyraeans and sent them to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis to be made eunuchs as an act of vengeance; for the Corcyraeans had first begun the quarrel by committing a terrible crime against him.

For after killing his own wife +Melissa [17.0333,39.3] (Perseus) Melissa , Periander suffered yet another calamity on top of what he had already suffered. He had two sons by +Melissa [17.0333,39.3] (Perseus) Melissa , one seventeen and one eighteen years old.

Their mother's father, Procles, the sovereign of Epidauros [23.0917,37.6] (Perseus) Epidaurus , sent for the boys and treated them affectionately, as was natural, seeing that they were his own daughter's sons. When they left him, he said as he sent them forth:

“Do you know, boys, who killed your mother?” The elder of them paid no attention to these words; but the younger, whose name was Lycophron, was struck with such horror when he heard them that when he came to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth he would not speak to his father, his mother's murderer, nor would he answer him when addressed nor reply to his questions. At last Periander was so angry that he drove the boy from his house.

Having driven this one away, he asked the elder son what their grandfather had said to them. The boy told him that Procles had treated them kindly, but did not mention what he had said at parting; for he had paid no attention. Periander said that by no means could Procles not have dropped some hint, and interrogated him persistently;

until the boy remembered, and told him. And Periander, comprehending, and wishing to show no weakness, sent a message to those with whom his banished son was living and forbade them to keep him.

So when the boy, driven out, would go to another house, he would be driven from this also, since Periander threatened all who received him and ordered them to shut him out; so when driven forth, he would go to some other house of his friends, and they, although he was the son of Periander, and although they were afraid, nonetheless took him in.

In the end Periander made a proclamation, that whoever sheltered the boy in his house or spoke to him, would owe a fine to Apollo, and he set the amount.

In view of this proclamation no one wished to address or receive the boy into his house; and besides, the boy himself did not think it right to attempt what was forbidden, but accepting it slept in the open.

On the fourth day, when Periander saw him starved and unwashed, he took pity on him, and his anger being softened, he came near and said: “My son, which is preferable—to follow your present way of life, or by being well-disposed toward your father to inherit my power and the goods which I now possess?

Though my son and a prince of prosperous Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth , you prefer the life of a vagrant, by opposing and being angry with me with whom you least ought to be. For if something has happened as a result of which you have a suspicion about me, it has happened to my disadvantage and I bear the brunt of it, inasmuch as I am the cause.

But bearing in mind how much better it is to be envied than to be pitied, and at the same time what sort of thing it is to be angry with your parents and with those that are stronger than you, come back to the house.”

With these words Periander tried to move his son, but he said nothing else to his father, only told him that because he had conversed with him he owed the fine to Apollo. When Periander saw that his son's stubbornness could not be got around or overcome, he sent him away out of his sight in a ship to +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe Corcyra ; for +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe Corcyra too was subject to him.

And when he had sent him away, he sent an army against Procles his father-in-law, since he was most to blame for his present troubles; and he took Epidauros [23.0917,37.6] (Perseus) Epidaurus , captured Procles, and imprisoned him.

As time went on, Periander, now grown past his prime and aware that he could no longer oversee and direct all his affairs, sent to +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe Corcyra inviting Lycophron to be sovereign; for he saw no hope in his eldest son, who seemed to him to be slow-witted.

Lycophron did not dignify the invitation with a reply. Then Periander, pressing the young man, sent to him (as the next best way) his daughter, the boy's sister, thinking that he would listen to her.

She came and said, “Child, would you want the power to fall to others, and our father's house destroyed, rather than to return and have it yourself? Come home and stop punishing yourself.

Pride is an unhappy possession. Do not cure evil by evil. Many place the more becoming thing before the just; and many pursuing their mother's business have lost their father's. Power is a slippery thing; many want it, and our father is now old and past his prime; do not lose what is yours to others.”

So she spoke communicating their father's inducements. But he answered that he would never come to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth as long as he knew his father was alive.

When she brought this answer back, Periander sent a third messenger, through whom he proposed that he should go to +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe Corcyra , and that the boy should return to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth and be the heir of his power.

The son consented to this; Periander got ready to go to +Corfu [19.916,39.633] (inhabited place), Corfu, Kerkira, Ionian Islands, Greece, Europe Corcyra and Lycophron to go to Corinth [22.9083,37.9083] (Perseus) Corinth ; but when the Corcyraeans learned of all these matters, they put the young man to death so that Periander would not come to their country. It was for this that Periander desired vengeance on the Corcyraeans.

The Lacedaemonians then came with a great army, and besieged +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos . They advanced to the wall and entered the tower that stands by the seaside in the outer part of the city; but then Polycrates himself attacked them with a great force and drove them out.

The mercenaries and many of the Samians themselves sallied out near the upper tower on the ridge of the hill and withstood the Lacedaemonian advance for a little while; then they fled back, with the Lacedaemonians pursuing and destroying them.

Had all the Lacedaemonians there that day been like Archias and Lycopas, +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos would have been taken. These two alone entered the fortress along with the fleeing crowd of Samians, and were cut off and killed in the city of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos .

I myself have met in his native town of Pitana another Archias son of Samius, and grandson of the Archias mentioned above, who honored the Samians more than any other of his guest-friends, and told me that his father had borne the name Samius because he was the son of that Archias who was killed fighting bravely at +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos . The reason that he honored the Samians, he said, was that they had given his grandfather a public funeral.

So when the Lacedaemonians had besieged +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos for forty days with no success, they went away to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnesus .

There is a foolish tale abroad that Polycrates bribed them to depart by making and giving them a great number of gilded lead coins, as a native currency. This was the first expedition to Asia (continent) Asia made by Dorians of Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon .

When the Lacedaemonians were about to abandon them, the Samians who had brought an army against Polycrates sailed away too, and went to Siphnus;

for they were in need of money; and the Siphnians were at this time very prosperous and the richest of the islanders, because of the gold and silver mines on the island. They were so wealthy that the treasure dedicated by them at Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi , which is as rich as any there, was made from a tenth of their income; and they divided among themselves each year's income.

Now when they were putting together the treasure they inquired of the oracle if their present prosperity was likely to last long; whereupon the priestess gave them this answer:

“When the prytaneum on Siphnus becomes white And white-browed the market, then indeed a shrewd man is wanted Beware a wooden force and a red herald.”

They could not understand this oracle either when it was spoken or at the time of the Samians' coming. As soon as the Samians put in at Siphnus, they sent ambassadors to the town in one of their ships;

now in ancient times all ships were painted with vermilion; and this was what was meant by the warning given by the priestess to the Siphnians, to beware a wooden force and a red herald.

The messengers, then, demanded from the Siphnians a loan of ten talents; when the Siphnians refused them, the Samians set about ravaging their lands.

Hearing this the Siphnians came out at once to drive them off, but they were defeated in battle, and many of them were cut off from their town by the Samians; who presently exacted from them a hundred talents.

Then the Samians took from the men of +Hermione [23.2583,37.3833] (Perseus) Hermione , instead of money, the island Hydrea which is near to the +Peloponnese [22,37.5] (region), Greece, Europe Peloponnesus , and gave it to men of Troizen [23.375,37.5] (Perseus) Troezen for safekeeping; they themselves settled at +Khania [24.33,35.516] (inhabited place), Canea, Crete, Greece, Europe Cydonia in +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete , though their voyage had been made with no such intent, but rather to drive Zacynthians out of the island.

Here they stayed and prospered for five years; indeed, the temples now at +Khania [24.33,35.516] (inhabited place), Canea, Crete, Greece, Europe Cydonia and the shrine of Dictyna are the Samians' work;

but in the sixth year Aeginetans and Cretans came and defeated them in a sea-fight and made slaves of them; moreover they cut off the ships' prows, that were shaped like boars' heads, and dedicated them in the temple of Athena in +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina .

The Aeginetans did this out of a grudge against the Samians; for previously the Samians, in the days when Amphicrates was king of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , sailing in force against +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina , had hurt the Aeginetans and been hurt by them. This was the cause.

I have written at such length of the Samians, because the three greatest works of all the Greeks were engineered by them. The first of these is the tunnel with a mouth at either end driven through the base of a hill nine hundred feet high;

the whole tunnel is forty-two hundred feet long, eight feet high and eight feet wide; and throughout the whole of its length there runs a channel thirty feet deep and three feet wide, through which the water coming from an abundant spring is carried by pipes to the city of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos .

The designer of this work was Eupalinus son of Naustrophus, a Megarian. This is one of the three works; the second is a breakwater in the sea enclosing the harbor, sunk one hundred and twenty feet, and more than twelve hundred feet in length.

The third Samian work is the temple, which is the greatest of all the temples of which we know; its first builder was Rhoecus son of Philes, a Samian. It is for this cause that I have expounded at more than ordinary length of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos .

Now after Cambyses, son of Cyrus, had lost his mind, while he was still in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , two Magus brothers rebelled against him. One of them had been left by Cambyses as steward of his house; this man now revolted from him, perceiving that the death of Smerdis was kept secret, and that few knew of it, most believing him to be still alive.

Therefore he plotted to gain the royal power: he had a brother, his partner, as I said, in rebellion; this brother was in appearance very like Cyrus' son Smerdis, whom Cambyses, his brother, had killed; nor was he like him in appearance only, but he bore the same name too, Smerdis.

Patizeithes the Magus persuaded this man that he would manage everything for him; he brought his brother and set him on the royal throne; then he sent heralds to all parts, one of whom was to go to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and proclaim to the army that henceforth they must obey not Cambyses but Smerdis, the son of Cyrus.

So this proclamation was made everywhere. The herald appointed to go to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , finding Cambyses and his army at +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana in +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria , came out before them all and proclaimed the message given him by the Magus.

When Cambyses heard what the herald said, he supposed that it was the truth, and that Prexaspes, when sent to kill Smerdis, had not done it but had played Cambyses false; and he said, fixing his eyes on Prexaspes, “Is it thus, Prexaspes, that you carried out my instructions?”

“No,” said Prexaspes, “this is not true, sire, that your brother Smerdis has rebelled against you; he cannot have any quarrel with you, small or great; I myself did as you instructed, and I buried him with my own hands.

If then the dead can rise, you may expect to see Astyages the Mede rise up against you; but if things are as usual, assuredly no harm to you will arise from Smerdis. Now then this is my opinion, that we pursue this herald and interrogate him, to learn from whom he comes with his proclamation that we must obey Smerdis as our king.”

Cambyses liked Prexaspes' advice; the herald was pursued at once and brought; and when he came, Prexaspes put this question to him: “Fellow, you say that your message is from Cyrus' son Smerdis; tell me this now, and you may go away unpunished: was it Smerdis who appeared to you and gave you this charge, or was it one of his servants?”

“Since King Cambyses marched to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ,” answered the herald, “I have never seen Smerdis the son of Cyrus; the Magus whom Cambyses made overseer of his house gave me the message, saying that it was the will of Smerdis, son of Cyrus, that I should make it known to you.”

So spoke the herald, telling the whole truth; and Cambyses said, “Prexaspes, having done what you were told like a good man you are free of blame; but who can this Persian be who rebels against me and usurps the name of Smerdis?”

Prexaspes replied, “I think, sire, that I understand what has been done here; the rebels are the Magi, Patizeithes whom you left steward of your house, and his brother Smerdis.”

The truth of the words and of a dream struck Cambyses the moment he heard the name Smerdis; for he had dreamt that a message had come to him that Smerdis sitting on the royal throne touched heaven with his head;

and perceiving that he had killed his brother without cause, he wept bitterly for Smerdis. Having wept, and grieved by all his misfortune, he sprang upon his horse, with intent to march at once to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa against the Magus.

As he sprang upon his horse, the cap fell off the sheath of his sword, and the naked blade pierced his thigh, wounding him in the same place where he had once wounded the Egyptian god Apis; and believing the wound to be mortal, Cambyses asked what was the name of the town where he was.

They told him it was +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana . Now a prophecy had before this come to him from +Kawm al-Farain [30.733,31.2] (deserted settlement), Kafr ash-Shaykh, Lower Egypt, Egypt, Africa Buto , that he would end his life at +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana ; Cambyses supposed this to signify that he would die in old age at the Median +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana , his capital city; but as the event proved, the oracle prophesied his death at +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana of +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria .

So when he now inquired and learned the name of the town, the shock of his wound, and of the misfortune that came to him from the Magus, brought him to his senses; he understood the prophecy and said: “Here Cambyses son of Cyrus is to die.”

At this time he said no more. But about twenty days later, he sent for the most prominent of the Persians that were about him, and thus addressed them: “Persians, I have to make known to you something which I kept most strictly concealed.

When I was in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt I had a dream, which I wish I had not had; it seemed to me that a messenger came from home to tell me that Smerdis sitting on the royal throne touched heaven with his head.

Then I feared that my brother would take away my sovereignty from me, and I acted with more haste than wisdom; for it is not in the power of human nature to run away from what is to be; but I, blind as I was, sent Prexaspes to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa to kill Smerdis. When that great wrong was done I lived without fear, for I never thought that when Smerdis was removed another man might rise against me.

But I mistook altogether what was to be; I have killed my brother when there was no need, and I have lost my kingdom none the less; for it was the Magus Smerdis that the divinity forewarned in the dream would revolt.

Now he has been done for by me, and I would have you believe that Smerdis Cyrus' son no longer lives; the Magi rule the kingdom, the one that I left caretaker of my house, and his brother Smerdis. So then, the man is dead of an unholy destiny at the hands of his relations who ought to have been my avenger for the disgrace I have suffered from the Magi;

and as he is no longer alive, necessity constrains me to charge you, men of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , in his place, with the last desire of my life. In the name of the gods of my royal house I charge all of you, but chiefly those Achaemenids that are here, not to let the sovereignty fall again into Median hands; if they have it after getting it by trickery, take it back through trickery of your own; if they have got it away by force, then by force all the stronger get it back.

And if you do this, may your land bring forth fruit, and your women and your flocks and herds be blessed with offspring, remaining free for all time; but if you do not get the kingdom back or attempt to get it back, then I pray things turn out the opposite for you, and on top of this, that every Persian meet an end such as mine.” With that Cambyses wept bitterly for all that had happened to him.

When the Persians saw their king weep, they all tore the clothing which they wore and wailed loud and long.

But when after this the bone rotted and the thigh rapidly putrefied, it carried off Cambyses son of Cyrus, who had reigned in all seven years and five months, but was altogether childless, without male or female issue.

To the Persians who were present it was quite incredible that the Magi were masters of the kingdom; they believed that Cambyses' intent was to deceive them with his story of Smerdis' death, so that all Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia might be embroiled in a war against him.

So they believed that it was Cyrus' son Smerdis who had been made king. For Prexaspes stoutly denied that he had killed Smerdis, since now that Cambyses was dead, it was not safe for him to say that he had slain the son of Cyrus with his own hands.

Cambyses being dead, the Magus, pretending to be the Smerdis of like name, Cyrus' son, reigned without fear for the seven months by which Cambyses had fallen short of reigning eight years.

In this time he benefitted all his subjects to such an extent that after his death all the Asiatics except the Persians wished him back; for he sent to every nation he ruled and proclaimed an exemption for three years from military service and from tribute.

Such was his proclamation at the beginning of his reign; but in the eighth month he was exposed in the following manner. There was one Otanes, son of Pharnaspes, as well-born and rich a man as any Persian.

This Otanes was the first to guess that the Magus was not Cyrus' son Smerdis and who, in fact, he was; the reason was, that he never left the acropolis nor summoned any notable Persian into his presence. And having formed this suspicion Otanes did as follows:

Cambyses had taken his daughter, whose name was Phaedyme; this same girl the Magus had now and he lived with her and with all Cambyses' other wives. Otanes sent to this daughter, asking at what man's side she lay, with Smerdis, Cyrus' son, or with some other?

She sent back a message that she did not know; for (she said) she had never seen Cyrus' son Smerdis, nor did she know who her bedfellow was. Then Otanes sent a second message, to this effect: “If you do not know Cyrus' son Smerdis yourself, then find out from Atossa who it is that she and you are living with; for surely she knows her own brother.”

To this his daughter replied: “I cannot communicate with Atossa, nor can I see any other of the women of the household; for no sooner had this man, whoever he is, made himself king, than he sent us to live apart, each in her own appointed place.”

When Otanes heard that, he saw more clearly how the matter stood; and he sent her this third message:

“Daughter, your noble birth obliges you to run any risk that your father commands you to face. If this man is not Smerdis son of Cyrus but who I think he is, then he must not get away with sleeping with you and sitting on the throne of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , but be punished.

Now, then, when he lies with you and you see that he is sleeping, feel his ears; if he has ears, rest assured that you are living with Smerdis son of Cyrus; but if he has none, it is Smerdis the Magus.”

Phaedyme answered by messenger that she would run a very great risk by so doing; for if it should turn out that he had no ears, and she were caught feeling for them, he would surely kill her; nevertheless she would do it.

So she promised to do this for her father. Cyrus son of Cambyses during his reign cut off the ears of this Magus Smerdis for some grave reason.

So Phaedyme, daughter of Otanes, performed her promise to her father. When it was her turn to go to the Magus (for their wives go in sequence to the Persians), she came to his bed and felt for the Magus' ears while he slumbered deeply; and having with no great difficulty assured herself that he had no ears, she sent and told this to her father as soon as it was morning.

Otanes then took aside two Persians of the highest rank whom he thought worthiest of trust, Aspathines and Gobryas, and told them the whole story. These, it would seem, had themselves suspected that it was so; and now they readily believed what Otanes revealed to them.

They resolved that each should take into his confidence that Persian whom he most trusted; Otanes brought in Intaphrenes, Gobryas brought Megabyzus, and Aspathines Hydarnes.

When they were six, Darius, whose father, Hystaspes, was a subordinate governor of the Persians, arrived at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa . When he came, then, the six Persians resolved to include Darius too.

The seven then met and gave each other tokens of good faith and spoke together; and when it was Darius' turn to declare his mind, he spoke as follows:

“I thought that I alone knew that it was the Magus who was king and that Smerdis son of Cyrus was dead; and it was for this reason that I made haste to come, that I might effect the Magus' death; but since it turns out that you know too and not only I, I think that we should act at once and not put it off.”

Otanes replied, “son of Hystaspes, you have a good father and seem likely yourself to be in no way inferior to your father; do not hurry this undertaking without thinking, but take it up more prudently; there must be more of us to try it.”

To this Darius answered: “You gentlemen who are here, if you do as Otanes says, know that you will die horribly; for someone will inform the Magus, looking to enrich himself alone.

You ought to have done it by yourselves; but since you decided to confide in others and have included me, let us either act today or else understand that if the present day passes, nobody else will betray you before I do, for I shall myself betray you to the Magus.”

To this Otanes replied, seeing Darius' vehemence, “Since you force us to hurry and will tolerate no delay, tell us now yourself how we shall pass into the palace and attack them. For you know yourself, I suppose, if not because you have seen them then you have heard, that guards are stationed all around; how shall we go past the guards?”

“Otanes,” answered Darius, “there are many things that cannot be described in words, but in deed; and there are other things that can be described in words, but nothing illustrious comes of them. You know well that the guards who are set are easy to go by.

There is no one who will not allow us to pass, from respect or from fear, because of who we are; and further, I have myself the best pretext for entering, for I shall say that I have just arrived from Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia and have a message for the king from my father.

When it is necessary to lie, lie. For we want the same thing, liars and those who tell the truth; some lie to win credence and advantage by lies, while others tell the truth in order to obtain some advantage by the truth and to be more trusted; thus we approach the same ends by different means.

If the hope of advantage were taken away, the truth-teller would be as ready to lie as the liar to tell the truth. Now if any of the watchmen willingly let us pass, it will be better for him later. But if any tries to withstand us, let us note him as an enemy, and so thrust ourselves in and begin our work.”

Then Gobryas said, “Friends, when shall we have a better chance to win back the kingship, or, if we cannot, to die, since we who are Persians are ruled by a Mede, a Magus, and he a man that has no ears?

Those of you that were with Cambyses at his death-bed of course remember the curse which he pronounced as he died on the Persians if they should not try to get back the kingship, although we did not believe Cambyses then, but thought that he spoke to deceive us.

Now therefore my vote is that we follow Darius' plan, and not quit this council to do anything else but attack the Magus at once.” So spoke Gobryas; and they all consented to what he said.

While they were making these plans, by coincidence the following happened. The Magi had resolved after consideration to make a friend of Prexaspes, because he had been wronged by Cambyses (who had killed his son with an arrow) and because he alone knew of the death of Cyrus' son Smerdis, having himself been the slayer; but besides this, because he was in great repute among the Persians.

For these reasons they summoned him and tried to make him a friend, having bound him by tokens of good faith and oaths to keep to himself and betray to no one their deception of the Persians, and promising to give him all things in great abundance.

When Prexaspes agreed to do this, since the Magi importuned him, the Magi made this second proposal to him, that they should call an assembly of all the Persians before the palace wall, and he should go up on to a tower and declare that it was Smerdis son of Cyrus and no other who was king of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia .

They gave him this charge, because they thought him to be the man most trusted by the Persians, and because he had often asserted that Cyrus' son Smerdis was alive, and had denied the murder.

When Prexaspes said that he was ready to do this too, the Magi summoned the Persians together, and brought him up on to a tower and bade him speak. Then, deliberately forgetting all the Magi's instructions, he traced the lineage of Cyrus from Achaemenes downwards; when he came at last to the name of Cyrus, he recounted all the good which that king had done to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia ,

and after he had narrated this, he revealed the truth, saying that he had concealed it before, as it had not been safe for him to tell what had happened, but at the present time necessity forced him to reveal it: and he said that he himself, forced by Cambyses, had killed Smerdis son of Cyrus, and that the Magi were in power.

Then, invoking a terrible curse on the Persians if they did not win back the throne and take vengeance on the Magi, he threw himself headlong down from the tower; so Prexaspes, a man who was always well thought of, perished in this way.

The seven Persians, when they had decided to attack the Magi at once and not delay, prayed to the gods and set forth, knowing nothing of what had happened to Prexaspes.

But when they had gone half way they learned what had happened to Prexaspes. Then they argued there, standing beside the road, Otanes' party demanding that they delay and not attack while events were in flux, and Darius' party that they go directly and do what they had decided and not put it off.

While they were arguing, they saw seven pairs of hawks chase and slash and tear to bits two pairs of vultures. And seeing this all seven consented to Darius' opinion, and went on to the palace, encouraged by the birds.

When they came to the gate, it turned out as Darius had expected; the guards, out of respect for the leading men in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia and never suspecting that there would be trouble from them, allowed them to pass, who enjoyed divine guidance, and no one asked any questions.

And when they came to the court, they met the eunuchs that carry messages, who asked the seven why they had come; and while they were questioning these, they were threatening the watchmen for letting them pass, and restraining the seven who wanted to go on.

These gave each other the word, drew their knives, and stabbing the eunuchs who barred their way, went forward at a run to the men's apartment.

Both the Magi were within, deliberating about the consequences of Prexaspes' act. Seeing the eunuchs in confusion and hearing their cries they both sprang up: and when they realized what was happening they turned to defending themselves.

One rushed to take down a bow, the other went for a spear. Then the fighting started. The one that had caught up the bow found it was no use to him, as the antagonists were close and jostling one another; but the other defended himself with his spear, wounding Aspathines in the thigh and Intaphrenes in the eye; Intaphrenes lost his eye from the wound but was not killed.

So one of the Magi wounded these; the other, as the bow was no use to him, fled into a chamber adjoining the men's apartment and would have shut its door.

Two of the seven flung into the room with him, Darius and Gobryas; as Gobryas and the Magus wrestled together, Darius stood helpless in the darkness, afraid of stabbing Gobryas.

Gobryas, seeing Darius stand helpless, asked why he did not lend a hand; and he said, “Because I am afraid for you, that I might stab you.” And Gobryas answered, “Stick your sword even if it goes through us both.” So Darius complying stabbed with his knife and somehow stuck the Magus.

When they had killed the Magi and cut off their heads, they left their wounded there because of their infirmity and for the sake of guarding the acropolis, while five of them carrying the Magi's heads ran outside with much shouting and commotion, calling all Persians to aid, telling what they had done and showing the heads; at the same time they killed every Magus that came in their way.

The Persians, when they learned what had been done by the seven and how the Magi had tricked them, resolved to follow the example set, and drew their daggers and killed all the Magi they could find; and if nightfall had not stopped them they would not have left one Magus alive.

This day is the greatest holy day that all Persians alike keep; they celebrate a great festival on it, which they call the Massacre of the Magi; while the festival lasts no Magus may go outdoors, but during this day the Magi remain in their houses.

After the tumult quieted down, and five days passed, the rebels against the Magi held a council on the whole state of affairs, at which sentiments were uttered which to some Greeks seem incredible, but there is no doubt that they were spoken.

Otanes was for turning the government over to the Persian people: “It seems to me,” he said, “that there can no longer be a single sovereign over us, for that is not pleasant or good. You saw the insolence of Cambyses, how far it went, and you had your share of the insolence of the Magus.

How can monarchy be a fit thing, when the ruler can do what he wants with impunity? Give this power to the best man on earth, and it would stir him to unaccustomed thoughts. Insolence is created in him by the good things to hand, while from birth envy is rooted in man.

Acquiring the two he possesses complete evil; for being satiated he does many reckless things, some from insolence, some from envy. And yet an absolute ruler ought to be free of envy, having all good things; but he becomes the opposite of this towards his citizens; he envies the best who thrive and live, and is pleased by the worst of his fellows; and he is the best confidant of slander.

Of all men he is the most inconsistent; for if you admire him modestly he is angry that you do not give him excessive attention, but if one gives him excessive attention he is angry because one is a flatter. But I have yet worse to say of him than that; he upsets the ancestral ways and rapes women and kills indiscriminately.

But the rule of the multitude has in the first place the loveliest name of all, equality, and does in the second place none of the things that a monarch does. It determines offices by lot, and holds power accountable, and conducts all deliberating publicly. Therefore I give my opinion that we make an end of monarchy and exalt the multitude, for all things are possible for the majority.”

Such was the judgment of Otanes: but Megabyzus urged that they resort to an oligarchy. “I agree,” said he, “with all that Otanes says against the rule of one; but when he tells you to give the power to the multitude, his judgment strays from the best. Nothing is more foolish and violent than a useless mob;

for men fleeing the insolence of a tyrant to fall victim to the insolence of the unguided populace is by no means to be tolerated. Whatever the one does, he does with knowledge, but for the other knowledge is impossible; how can they have knowledge who have not learned or seen for themselves what is best, but always rush headlong and drive blindly onward, like a river in flood?

Let those like democracy who wish ill to Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia ; but let us choose a group of the best men and invest these with the power. For we ourselves shall be among them, and among the best men it is likely that there will be the best counsels.”

Such was the judgment of Megabyzus. Darius was the third to express his opinion. “It seems to me,” he said, “that Megabyzus speaks well concerning democracy but not concerning oligarchy. For if the three are proposed and all are at their best for the sake of argument, the best democracy and oligarchy and monarchy, I hold that monarchy is by far the most excellent.

One could describe nothing better than the rule of the one best man; using the best judgment, he will govern the multitude with perfect wisdom, and best conceal plans made for the defeat of enemies.

But in an oligarchy, the desire of many to do the state good service often produces bitter hate among them; for because each one wishes to be first and to make his opinions prevail, violent hate is the outcome, from which comes faction and from faction killing, and from killing it reverts to monarchy, and by this is shown how much better monarchy is.

Then again, when the people rule it is impossible that wickedness will not occur; and when wickedness towards the state occurs, hatred does not result among the wicked, but strong alliances; for those that want to do the state harm conspire to do it together. This goes on until one of the people rises to stop such men. He therefore becomes the people's idol, and being their idol is made their monarch; and thus he also proves that monarchy is best.

But (to conclude the whole matter in one word) tell me, where did freedom come from for us and who gave it, from the people or an oligarchy or a single ruler? I believe, therefore, that we who were liberated through one man should maintain such a government, and, besides this, that we should not alter our ancestral ways that are good; that would not be better.”

Having to choose between these three options, four of the seven men preferred the last. Then Otanes, whose proposal to give the Persians equality was defeated, spoke thus among them all:

“Fellow partisans, it is plain that one of us must be made king (whether by lot, or entrusted with the office by the choice of the Persians, or in some other way), but I shall not compete with you; I desire neither to rule nor to be ruled; but if I waive my claim to be king, I make this condition, that neither I nor any of my descendants shall be subject to any one of you.”

To these terms the six others agreed; Otanes took no part in the contest but stood aside; and to this day his house (and no other in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia ) remains free, and is ruled only so far as it is willing to be, so long as it does not transgress Persian law.

The rest of the seven then considered what was the fairest way of making a king; and they decided that if another of the seven than Otanes should gain the royal power, that Otanes and his descendants should receive a yearly gift of Median clothing and everything else that the Persians hold most valuable. The reason for this decision was that it was he who had first planned the matter and assembled the conspirators.

For Otanes, then, they choose this particular honor; but with regard to all of them they decreed that any one of the seven should, if he wished, enter the king's palace unannounced, except when the king was sleeping with a woman; and that the king should be forbidden to take a wife except from the households of the conspirators.

As for the making of a king, they decided that he should be elected whose horse, after they were all in their saddles in the suburb of the city, should first be heard to neigh at sunrise.

Now Darius had a clever groom, whose name was Oebares. When the council broke up, Darius said to him: “Oebares, we have resolved to do as follows about the kingship: he shall be elected whose horse, after we are all mounted on our horses in the suburb of the city, neighs first at sunrise. Now if you have any cunning, figure out how we and no one else can win this prize.”

“Master,” Oebares answered, “if this is to determine whether you become king or not, be confident for this reason and have an easy mind, for no one else shall be king before you, such are the tricks I have.” “Then,” said Darius, “if you have any trick such as you say, use it and don't put it off, for tomorrow is the day of decision.”

When Oebares heard that, he did as follows. At nightfall he brought one of the mares which Darius' horse particularly favored, and tethered her in the suburb of the city; then bringing Darius' horse, he repeatedly led him near the horse, bumping against the mare, and at last let the horse mount.

At dawn of day the six came on horseback as they had agreed. As they rode out through the suburb and came to the place where the mare had been tethered in the past night, Darius' horse trotted forward and whinnied;

and as he so did there came lightning and thunder out of a clear sky. These signs given to Darius were thought to be foreordained and made his election perfect; his companions leapt from their horses and bowed to him.

Some say that this was Oebares' plan; but there is another story in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia besides this: that he rubbed this mare's vulva with his hand, which he then kept inside his clothing until the six were about to let go their horses at sunrise, when he took his hand out and held it to the nostrils of Darius' horse, which at once snorted and whinnied.

So Darius son of Hystaspes was made king, and the whole of Asia (continent) Asia , which Cyrus first and Cambyses after him had conquered, was subject to him, except the Arabians; these did not yield as of slaves to the Persians, but were united to them by friendship, having given Cambyses passage into Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , which the Persians could not enter without the consent of the Arabians.

Darius took wives from the noblest houses of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , marrying Cyrus' daughters Atossa and Artystone; Atossa had been a wife of her brother Cambyses and afterwards of the Magus; Artystone was a virgin.

He also married a daughter of Cyrus' son Smerdis, whose name was Parmys, and the daughter of Otanes who had discovered the truth about the Magus; and everything was full of his power. First he made and set up a carved stone, upon which was cut the figure of a horseman, with this inscription: “Darius son of Hystaspes, aided by the excellence of his horse” (here followed the horse's name) “and of Oebares his groom, got possession of the kingdom of Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia .”

Having done these things in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia , he divided his dominions into twenty provinces, which they call satrapies; and having divided his dominions and appointed governors, he instructed each people to pay him tribute, consolidating neighboring peoples and distributing outlying peoples among different provinces, passing over those adjoining.

I will now show how he divided his provinces and the tributes which were paid him yearly. Those that paid in silver were required to render the weight of a Babylonian talent; those that paid in gold, of a Euboic talent; the Babylonian talent being equal to seventy-eight Euboic minae.

In the reigns of Cyrus and Cambyses after him there was no fixed tribute, but payment was made in gifts. It is because of this fixing of tribute, and other similar ordinances, that the Persians called Darius the merchant, Cambyses the master, and Cyrus the father; for Darius made petty profit out of everything, Cambyses was harsh and arrogant, Cyrus was merciful and always worked for their well-being.

The Ionians, Magnesians of Asia (continent) Asia , Aeolians, Carians, Lycians, Milyans, and Pamphylians, on whom Darius laid one joint tribute, paid a revenue of four hundred talents of silver. This was established as his first province. The Mysians, Lydians, Lasonians, Cabalians, and Hytennians paid five hundred talents; this was the second province.

The third comprised the Hellespontians on the right of the entrance of the straits, the Phrygians, Thracians of Asia (continent) Asia , Paphlagonians, Mariandynians, and Syrians; these paid three hundred and sixty talents of tribute.

The fourth province was Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia . This rendered three hundred and sixty white horses, one for each day in the year, and five hundred talents of silver. A hundred and forty of these were expended on the horsemen who were the guard of Cilicia [34.333,36.666] (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Cilicia ; the three hundred and sixty that remained were paid to Darius.

The fifth province was the country (except the part belonging to the Arabians, which paid no tribute) between Posideion, a city founded on the Cilician and Syrian border by Amphilochus son of Amphiaraus, and Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; this paid three hundred and fifty talents; in this province was all +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia , and the part of +Syria [38,35] (nation), Asia Syria called +Palestine [35.333,31.916] (region (general)), Asia Palestine , and Cyprus [33,35] (island), Asia Cyprus .

The sixth province was Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt and the neighboring parts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya , and Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene and +Al Marj [20.833,32.5] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Barca , all of which were included in the province of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . From here came seven hundred talents, besides the income in silver from the fish of the Birkat Qarun [30.666,29.466] (salt lake), Egypt, Africa lake Moeris ;

besides that silver and the assessment of grain that was given also, seven hundred talents were paid; for a hundred and twenty thousand bushels of grain were also assigned to the Persians quartered at the White Wall of Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis and their allies.

The Sattagydae, Gandarii, Dadicae, and Aparytae paid together a hundred and seventy talents; this was the seventh province; the eighth was Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa and the rest of the Cissian country, paying three hundred talents.

From Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon and the rest of Assyria came to Darius a thousand talents of silver and five hundred castrated boys; this was the ninth province; +Hamadan [48.583,34.766] (inhabited place), Hamadan, Iran, Asia Ecbatana and the rest of Media, with the Paricanians and Orthocorybantians, paid four hundred and fifty talents, and was the tenth province.

The eleventh comprised the Caspii, Pausicae, Pantimathi, and Daritae, paying jointly two hundred;

The twelfth, the Bactrians as far as the land of the Aegli; these paid three hundred and sixty. The thirteenth, the Pactyic country and Armenia (region (general)), Asia Armenia and the lands adjoining as far as the Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine sea ; these paid four hundred.

The fourteenth province was made up of the Sagartii, Sarangeis, Thamanaei, Utii, Myci, and the inhabitants of those islands of the southern sea on which the king settles the so-called displaced people; these together paid a tribute of six hundred talents.

The Sacae and Caspii were the fifteenth, paying two hundred and fifty. The Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdi, and Arii were the sixteenth, paying three hundred.

The Paricanii and Ethiopians of Asia (continent) Asia , the seventeenth, paid four hundred; the Matieni, Saspiri, and Alarodii were the eighteenth, and two hundred talents were the appointed tribute.

The Moschi, Tibareni, Macrones, Mossynoeci, and Mares, the nineteenth province, were ordered to pay three hundred. The Indians made up the twentieth province. These are more in number than any nation of which we know, and they paid a greater tribute than any other province, namely three hundred and sixty talents of gold dust.

Now if these Babylonian silver talents be calculated in Euboic money, the sum is seen to be nine thousand eight hundred and eighty Euboic talents:

and the gold coin being thirteen times the value of the silver, the gold-dust is found to be worth four thousand six hundred and eighty Euboic talents. Therefore it is seen by adding all together that Darius collected a yearly tribute of fourteen thousand five hundred and sixty talents; I take no account of figures less than ten.

This was Darius' revenue from Asia (continent) Asia and a few parts of Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya . But as time went on he drew tribute also from the islands and the dwellers in Europe (continent) Europe , as far as +Thessaly [22.25,39.5] (region), Greece, Europe Thessaly .

The tribute is stored by the king in this fashion: he melts it down and pours it into earthen vessels; when the vessel is full he breaks the earthenware away, and when he needs money coins as much as serves his purpose.

These were the governments and appointments of tribute. The Persian country is the only one which I have not recorded as tributary; for the Persians live free from all taxes.

As for those on whom no tribute was laid, but who rendered gifts instead, they were, firstly, the Ethiopians nearest to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , whom Cambyses conquered in his march towards the long-lived Ethiopians; and also those who dwell about the holy +Nysa [28.1667,37.8667] (Perseus) Nysa , where Dionysus is the god of their festivals. These Ethiopians and their neighbors use the same seed as the Indian Callantiae, and they live underground.

These together brought every other year and still bring a gift of two choenixes of unrefined gold, two hundred blocks of ebony, five Ethiopian boys, and twenty great elephants' tusks.

Gifts were also required of the Colchians and their neighbors as far as the +Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia Caucasus mountains (which is as far as the Persian rule reaches, the country north of the +Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia Caucasus paying no regard to the Persians); these were rendered every four years and are still rendered, namely, a hundred boys and as many maids.

The Arabians rendered a thousand talents' weight of frankincense yearly. Such were the gifts of these peoples to the king, besides the tribute.

All this abundance of gold, from which the Indians send the aforementioned gold-dust to the king, they obtain in the following way.

To the east of the Indian country is sand. Of all the people of Asia (continent) Asia whom we know - even those about whom something is said with precision - the Indians dwell nearest to the dawn and the rising sun; for on the eastern side of +India [77,20] (nation), Asia India all is desolate because of the sand.

There are many Indian nations, none speaking the same language; some of them are nomads, some not; some dwell in the river marshes and live on raw fish, which they catch from reed boats. Each boat is made of one joint of reed.

These Indians wear clothes of bullrushes; they mow and cut these from the river, then weave them crosswise like a mat, and wear them like a breastplate.

Other Indians, to the east of these, are nomads and eat raw flesh; they are called Padaei. It is said to be their custom that when anyone of their fellows, whether man or woman, is sick, a man's closest friends kill him, saying that if wasted by disease he will be lost to them as meat; though he denies that he is sick, they will not believe him, but kill and eat him.

When a woman is sick, she is put to death like the men by the women who are her close acquaintances. As for one that has come to old age, they sacrifice him and feast on his flesh; but not many reach this reckoning, for before that everyone who falls ill they kill.

There are other Indians, again, who kill no living creature, nor plant anything, nor are accustomed to have houses; they eat grass, and they have a grain growing naturally from the earth in its husk, about the size of a millet-seed, which they gather with the husk and boil and eat. When any one of them falls sick, he goes into the desert and lies there, and no one notices whether he is sick or dies.

These Indians whom I have described have intercourse openly like cattle; they are all black-skinned, like the Ethiopians.

Their semen too, which they ejaculate into the women, is not white like other men's, but black like their skin, and resembles in this respect that of the Ethiopians. These Indians dwell far away from the Persians southwards, and were not subjects of King Darius.

Other Indians dwell near the town of Caspatyrus and the Pactyic country, north of the rest of +India [77,20] (nation), Asia India ; these live like the Bactrians; they are of all Indians the most warlike, and it is they who are sent for the gold; for in these parts all is desolate because of the sand.

In this sandy desert are ants, not as big as dogs but bigger than foxes; the Persian king has some of these, which have been caught there. These ants live underground, digging out the sand in the same way as the ants in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece , to which they are very similar in shape, and the sand which they carry from the holes is full of gold.

It is for this sand that the Indians set forth into the desert. They harness three camels apiece, males on either side sharing the drawing, and a female in the middle: the man himself rides on the female, that when harnessed has been taken away from as young an offspring as may be. Their camels are as swift as horses, and much better able to bear burdens besides.

I do not describe the camel's appearance to Greeks, for they know it; but I shall tell them something that they do not know concerning it: the hindlegs of the camel have four thighbones and four knee-joints; its genitals are turned towards the tail between the hindlegs.

Thus and with teams so harnessed the Indians ride after the gold, being careful to be engaged in taking it when the heat is greatest; for the ants are then out of sight underground.

Now in these parts the sun is hottest in the morning, not at midday as elsewhere, but from sunrise to the hour of market-closing. Through these hours it is much hotter than in Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas at noon, so that men are said to sprinkle themselves with water at this time.

At midday the sun's heat is nearly the same in +India [77,20] (nation), Asia India as elsewhere. As it goes to afternoon, the sun of +India [77,20] (nation), Asia India has the power of the morning sun in other lands; as day declines it becomes ever cooler, until at sunset it is exceedingly cold.

So when the Indians come to the place with their sacks, they fill these with the sand and drive back as fast as possible; for the ants at once scent them out, the Persians say, and give chase. They say nothing is equal to them for speed, so that unless the Indians have a headstart while the ants were gathering, not one of them would get away.

They cut loose the male trace-camels, which are slower than the females, as they begin to lag, one at a time; the mares never tire, for they remember the young that they have left. Such is the tale. Most of the gold (say the Persians) is got in this way by the Indians; they dig some from mines in their country, too, but it is less abundant.

The most outlying nations of the world have somehow drawn the finest things as their lot, exactly as Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece has drawn the possession of far the best seasons.

As I have lately said, +India [77,20] (nation), Asia India lies at the world's most distant eastern limit; and in +India [77,20] (nation), Asia India all living creatures four-footed and flying are much bigger than those of other lands, except the horses, which are smaller than the Median horses called Nesaean; moreover, the gold there, whether dug from the earth or brought down by rivers or got as I have described, is very abundant.

There, too, wool more beautiful and excellent than the wool of sheep grows on wild trees; these trees supply the Indians with clothing.

Again, Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia is the most distant to the south of all inhabited countries: and this is the only country which produces frankincense and myrrh and casia and cinnamon and gum-mastich. All these except myrrh are difficult for the Arabians to get.

They gather frankincense by burning that storax which Phoenicians carry to Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas ; they burn this and so get the frankincense; for the spice-bearing trees are guarded by small winged snakes of varied color, many around each tree; these are the snakes that attack Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt . Nothing except the smoke of storax will drive them away from the trees.

The Arabians also say that the whole country would be full of these snakes if the same thing did not occur among them that I believe occurs among vipers.

Somehow the forethought of God (just as is reasonable) being wise has made all creatures prolific that are timid and edible, so that they do not become extinct through being eaten, whereas few young are born to hardy and vexatious creatures.

On the one hand, because the hare is hunted by every beast and bird and man, therefore it is quite prolific; alone of all creatures it conceives during pregnancy; some of the unborn young are hairy, some still naked, some are still forming in the womb while others are just conceived.

On the one hand there is this sort of thing, but on the other hand the lioness, that is so powerful and so bold, once in her life bears one cub; for in the act of bearing she casts her uterus out with her cub. The explanation of this is that when the cub first begins to stir in the mother, its claws, much sharper than those of any other creature, tear the uterus, and the more it grows the more it scratches and tears, so that when the hour of birth is near seldom is any of the uterus left intact.

So too if the vipers and the winged serpents of Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia were born in the natural manner of serpents life would be impossible for men; but as it is, when they copulate, while the male is in the act of procreation and as soon as he has ejaculated his seed, the female seizes him by the neck, and does not let go until she has bitten through.

The male dies in the way described, but the female suffers in return for the male the following punishment: avenging their father, the young while they are still within the womb gnaw at their mother and eating through her bowels thus make their way out.

Other snakes, that do no harm to men, lay eggs and hatch out a vast number of young. The Arabian winged serpents do indeed seem to be numerous; but that is because (although there are vipers in every land) these are all in Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia and are found nowhere else.

The Arabians get frankincense in the foregoing way, and casia in the following way: when they go after it they bind oxhides and other skins all over their bodies and faces except for the eyes. Casia grows in a shallow lake; around this and in it live winged creatures, very like bats, that squeak similarly and make a fierce resistance; these have to be kept away from the eyes in order to take the casia.

As for cinnamon, they gather it in an even stranger way. Where it comes from and what land produces it they cannot say, except that it is reported, reasonably enough, to grow in the places where Dionysus was reared.

There are great birds, it is said, that take these dry sticks which we have learned from the Phoenicians to call cinnamon and carry them off to nests stuck with mud to precipitous cliffs, where man has no means of approach.

The Arabian solution to this is to cut dead oxen and asses and other beasts of burden into the largest possible pieces, then to set these near the eyries and withdraw far off. The birds then fly down (it is said) and carry the pieces of the beasts up to their nests, while these, not being able to bear the weight, break and fall down the mountain side, and then the Arabians come and gather them up. Thus is cinnamon said to be gathered, and so to come from Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia to other lands.

But ledanon, which the Arabians call ladanon, is produced yet more strangely than this. For it is the most fragrant thing produced in the most malodorous; for it is found in he-goats' beards, forming in them like gum among timber. This is used in the manufacture of many perfumes; there is nothing that the Arabians burn so often as incense.

Enough of marvels, and yet the land of Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), Asia Arabia gives off a scent as sweet as if divine. They have besides two marvellous kinds of sheep, found nowhere else. One of these has tails no less than nine feet long. Were the sheep to trail these after them they would suffer by the chafing of the tails on the ground;

but every shepherd there knows enough of carpentry to make little carts which they fix under the tails, binding the tail of each sheep on its own cart. The other kind of sheep has a tail a full three feet broad.

Where south inclines westwards, the part of the world stretching farthest towards the sunset is Ethiopia [39,8] (nation), Africa Ethiopia ; this produces gold in abundance, and huge elephants, and all sorts of wild trees, and ebony, and the tallest and handsomest and longest-lived people.

These then are the most distant lands in Asia (continent) Asia and Libya [17,25] (nation), Africa Libya . But concerning those in Europe (continent) Europe that are the farthest away towards evening, I cannot speak with assurance; for I do not believe that there is a river called by foreigners +Po [12.5,44.966] (river), Italy, Europe Eridanus issuing into the northern sea, where our amber is said to come from, nor do I have any knowledge of Tin Islands, where our tin is brought from.

The very name +Po [12.5,44.966] (river), Italy, Europe Eridanus betrays itself as not a foreign but a Greek name, invented by some poet; nor for all my diligence have I been able to learn from one who has seen it that there is a sea beyond Europe (continent) Europe . All we know is that our tin and amber come from the most distant parts.

But in the north of Europe (continent) Europe there is by far the most gold. In this matter again I cannot say with assurance how the gold is produced, but it is said that one-eyed men called Arimaspians steal it from griffins.

But I do not believe this, that there are one-eyed men who have a nature otherwise the same as other men.

The most outlying lands, though, as they enclose and wholly surround all the rest of the world, are likely to have those things which we think the finest and the rarest.

There is a plain in Asia (continent) Asia shut in on all sides by mountains through which there are five passes. This plain was once the Chorasmians', being at the boundaries of the Chorasmians, the Hyrcanians, Parthians, Sarangians, and Thamanaei, but since the Persians have held power it has been the king's.

Now from the encircling mountains flows a great river whose name is the Aces. Its stream divides into five channels and formerly watered the lands of the above-mentioned peoples, going to each through a different pass, but since the beginning of the Persian rule

the king has blocked the mountain passes, and closed each passage with a gate; with the water barred from outlet, the plain within the mountains becomes a lake, seeing that the river pours into it and finds no way out.

Those therefore who before were accustomed to use the water endure great hardship in not being able to use it; for during the winter, god rains for them just as for the rest of mankind, but in the summer they are in need of the water for their sown millet and sesame.

So whenever no water is given to them, they come into Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia with their women, and cry and howl before the door of the king's palace, until the king commands that the river-gate should be opened for those whose need is greatest;

then, when this land has drunk its fill of water, that gate is shut, and the king has another opened for those of the rest who most require it. I know by hearsay that he gets a lot of money, over and above the tribute, for opening the gates. So much for these matters.

Of the seven men who revolted against the Magus, one, Intaphrenes, got his death through his own violence immediately after the rebellion. He wanted to enter the palace and speak with the king; and in fact the law was, that the rebels against the Magus could come into the king's presence unannounced, if the king were not having intercourse with one of his wives.

Intaphrenes, as one of the seven, claimed his right to enter unannounced; but the gatekeeper and the messenger forbade him, telling him that the king was having intercourse with one of his wives. Intaphrenes thought that they were lying; drawing his scimitar he cut off their noses and ears, then strung these on his horse's bridle and hung it around the men's necks, and so let them go.

They showed themselves to the king and told him why they had been treated so. Darius, fearing that the six had done this by common consent, sent for each and asked his opinion, whether they approved what had been done;

and being assured that they had no part in it, he seized Intaphrenes with his sons and all his household—for he strongly suspected that the man was plotting a rebellion with his kinsmen—and imprisoned them with the intention of putting them to death.

Then Intaphrenes' wife began coming to the palace gates, weeping and lamenting; and by continuing to do this same thing she persuaded Darius to pity her; and he sent a messenger to tell her, “Woman, King Darius will allow one of your imprisoned relatives to survive, whomever you prefer of them all.”

After considering she answered, “If indeed the king gives me the life of one, I chose from them all my brother.”

Darius was astonished when he heard her answer, and sent someone who asked her: “Woman, the king asks you with what in mind you abandon your husband and your children and choose to save the life of your brother, who is less close to you than your children and less dear than your husband?”

“O King,” she answered, “I may have another husband, if a god is willing, and other children, if I lose these; but since my father and mother are no longer living, there is no way that I can have another brother; I said what I did with that in mind.”

Darius thought that the woman answered well, and for her sake he released the one for whom she had asked, and the eldest of her sons as well; he put to death all the rest. Thus immediately perished one of the seven.

While Cambyses was still ill, the following events occurred. The governor of Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis appointed by Cyrus was Oroetes, a Persian. This man had an impious desire; for although he had not been injured or spoken badly of by Polycrates of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , and had in fact never even seen him before, he desired to seize and kill him, for the following reason, most people say.

As Oroetes and another Persian whose name was Mitrobates, governor of the province at Dascyleium, sat at the king's doors, they fell from talking to quarreling; and as they compared their achievements Mitrobates said to Oroetes,

“You are not to be reckoned a man; the island of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos lies close to your province, yet you have not added it to the king's dominion—an island so easy to conquer that some native of it revolted against his rulers with fifteen hoplites, and is now lord of it.”

Some say that Oroetes, angered by this reproach, did not so much desire to punish the source of it as to destroy Polycrates utterly, the occasion of the reproach.

A few people, however, say that when Oroetes sent a herald to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos with some request (it is not said what this was), the herald found Polycrates lying in the men's apartments, in the company of Anacreon of +Teos [26.8,38.1667] (Perseus) Teos ;

and, whether on purpose to show contempt for Oroetes, or by mere chance, when Oroetes' herald entered and addressed him, Polycrates, then lying with his face to the wall, never turned or answered him.

These are the two reasons alleged for Polycrates' death; believe whichever you like. But the consequence was that Oroetes, then at Magnesia ad Meander [27.416,37.833] (deserted settlement), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Magnesia which is above the river +Buyukmenderes Nehri [27.183,37.466] (river), Turkey, Asia Maeander , sent Myrsus son of Gyges, a Lydian, with a message to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , having learned Polycrates' intention;

for Polycrates was the first of the Greeks whom we know to aim at the mastery of the sea, leaving out of account Minos of +Knossos [25.166,35.3] (deserted settlement), Iraklion, Crete, Greece, Europe Cnossus and any others who before him may have ruled the sea; of what may be called the human race Polycrates was the first, and he had great hope of ruling Ionia (region (general)), Europe Ionia and the Islands.

Learning then that he had this intention, Oroetes sent him this message: “Oroetes addresses Polycrates as follows: I find that you aim at great things, but that you have not sufficient money for your purpose. Do then as I direct, and you will succeed yourself and will save me. King Cambyses aims at my death; of this I have clear intelligence.

Now if you will transport me and my money, you may take some yourself and let me keep the rest; thus you shall have wealth enough to rule all Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . If you mistrust what I tell you about the money, send someone who is most trusted by you and I will prove it to him.”

Hearing this, Polycrates was pleased and willing; and since he had a great desire for money he first sent one of his townsmen, Maeandrius, son of Maeandrius, to have a look; this man was his scribe; it was he who not long afterwards dedicated in the Heraeum all the splendid furnishings of the men's apartment in Polycrates' house.

When Oroetes heard that an inspection was imminent, he filled eight chests with stones, leaving only a very shallow space at the top; then he laid gold on top of the stones, locked the chests, and kept them ready. Maeandrius came and saw, and brought word back to his master.

Polycrates then prepared to visit Oroetes, despite the strong dissuasion of his diviners and friends, and a vision seen by his daughter in a dream; she dreamt that she saw her father in the air overhead being washed by Zeus and anointed by Helios;

after this vision she used all means to persuade him not to go on this journey to Oroetes; even as he went to his fifty-oared ship she prophesied evil for him. When Polycrates threatened her that if he came back safe, she would long remain unmarried, she answered with a prayer that his threat might be fulfilled: for she would rather, she said, long remain unmarried than lose her father.

But Polycrates would listen to no advice. He sailed to meet Oroetes, with a great retinue of followers, among whom was Democedes, son of Calliphon, a man of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton and the most skillful physician of his time.

But no sooner had Polycrates come to Magnesia ad Meander [27.416,37.833] (deserted settlement), Aydin Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Magnesia than he was horribly murdered in a way unworthy of him and of his aims; for, except for the sovereigns of +Syracuse [15.3,37.0667] (Perseus) Syracuse , no sovereign of Greek race is fit to be compared with Polycrates for magnificence.

Having killed him in some way not fit to be told, Oroetes then crucified him; as for those who had accompanied him, he let the Samians go, telling them to thank him that they were free; those who were not Samians, or were servants of Polycrates' followers, he kept for slaves.

And Polycrates hanging in the air fulfilled his daughter's vision in every detail; for he was washed by Zeus when it rained, and he was anointed by Helios as he exuded sweat from his body.

This was the end of Polycrates' string of successes [as Amasis king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt had forewarned him]. But not long after, atonement for Polycrates overtook Oroetes. After the death of Cambyses and the rule of the Magi, Oroetes stayed in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis , where he did not help the Persians in any way to regain the power taken from them by the Medes,

but, to the contrary, in this confusion killed two prominent Persians, Mitrobates, the governor from Dascyleium, who had taunted him about Polycrates, and Mitrobates' son Cranaspes; and on top of many other violent acts, he set an ambush down the road after a messenger from Darius came with a message which displeased him and killed that messenger on his homeward journey, and concealed the man's body and horse.

So when Darius became king, he wanted to punish Oroetes for all his wrongdoing, and especially for killing Mitrobates and his son. But he thought it best not to send an army openly against the satrap, seeing that everything was still in confusion and he was still new to the royal power; moreover he heard that Oroetes was very powerful, having a guard of a thousand Persian spearmen and being governor of the Phrygian and Lydian and Ionian province.

He had recourse, then, to the following expedient: having summoned an assembly of the most prominent Persians, he addressed them as follows: “Persians, which of you will promise to do this for me, not with force and numbers, but by cunning? Where there is need for cunning, force has no business.

So then, which of you would either bring me Oroetes alive or kill him? For he has done the Persians no good, but much harm; he has destroyed two of us, Mitrobates and his son, and is killing my messengers that are sent to recall him, displaying an insolence that is not to be borne. So, then, before he does the Persians some still greater harm, he has to be punished by us with death.”

Darius asked this and thirty men promised, each wanting to do it himself. Darius told them not argue but draw lots; they did, and the lot fell to Bagaeus, son of Artontes.

Bagaeus, having drawn the lot, did as follows: he had many letters written concerning many things and put the seal of Darius on them, and then went with them to Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis .

When he got there and came into Oroetes' presence, he took out each letter in turn and gave it to one of the royal scribes to read (all of the governors of the King have scribes); Bagaeus gave the letters to test the spearmen, whether they would consent to revolt against Oroetes.

Seeing that they were greatly affected by the rolls and yet more by what was written in them, he gave another, in which were these words: “Persians! King Darius forbids you to be Oroetes' guard.” Hearing this, they lowered their spears for him.

When Bagaeus saw that they obeyed the letter so far, he was encouraged and gave the last roll to the scribe, in which was written: “King Darius instructs the Persians in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis to kill Oroetes.” Hearing this the spearmen drew their scimitars and killed him at once. Thus atonement for Polycrates the Samian overtook Oroetes the Persian.

Oroetes' slaves and other possessions were brought to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa . Not long after this, it happened that Darius twisted his foot in dismounting from his horse while hunting

so violently that the ball of the ankle joint was dislocated from its socket. Darius called in the best physicians of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , whom he had until now kept near his person. But by violently twisting the foot they made the injury worse;

and for seven days and nights the king could not sleep because of the pain. On the eighth day, when he was doing poorly, someone who had heard in Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis of the skill of Democedes of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton told Darius of him; and he told them to bring him as quickly as possible. When they found him among the slaves of Oroetes, where he was forgotten, they brought him along, dragging his chains and dressed in rags.

Darius asked him when he was brought in if he were trained in medicine. He refused to admit it, for he was afraid that if he revealed himself he would be cut off from Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas for good.

It was clear to Darius, however, that he was trained in deceit, and he ordered those who had brought him to bring along scourges and goads. Then he confessed, saying that his training was not exact, but that he had associated with a physician and had a passing acquaintance with medicine.

But when Darius turned the case over to him and Democedes applied Greek remedies and used gentleness instead of the Egyptians' violence, he enabled him to sleep and in a short time had him well, although Darius had had no hope of regaining the use of his foot.

After this, Darius rewarded him with a gift of two pairs of golden fetters. “Is it your purpose,” Democedes asked, “to double my pains for making you well?” Pleased by the retort, Darius sent him to his own wives. The eunuchs who conducted him told the women that this was the man who had given the king his life back.

Each of them took a bowl and dipped it in a chest full of gold, so richly rewarding Democedes that the servant accompanying him, whose name was Sciton, collected a very great sum of gold by picking up the staters that fell from the bowls.

Now this is how Democedes had come from +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton to live with Polycrates: he was oppressed by a harsh-tempered father at +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton ; since he could not stand him, he left him and went to +Aegina [23.433,37.75] (inhabited place), Aegina, Attica, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Aegina . Within the first year after settling there, he excelled the rest of the physicians, although he had no equipment nor any medical implements.

In his second year the Aeginetans paid him a talent to be their public physician; in the third year the Athenians hired him for a hundred minae, and Polycrates in the fourth year for two talents. Thus he came to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , and not least because of this man the physicians of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton were well-respected [

for at this time the best physicians in Greek countries were those of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton , and next to them those of Shahhat [21.866,32.833] (inhabited place), Al Jabal al Akhdar, Libya, Africa Cyrene . About the same time the Argives had the name of being the best musicians].

So now because he had healed Darius at Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa Democedes had a very grand house and ate at the king's table; he had everything, except permission to return to the Greeks.

When the Egyptian physicians who until now had attended the king were about to be impaled for being less skilful than a Greek, Democedes interceded with the king for them and saved them; and he saved an Elean seer, too, who had been a retainer of Polycrates' and was forgotten among the slaves. Democedes was a man of considerable influence with the King.

A short time after this, something else occurred; there was a swelling on the breast of Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus and wife of Darius, which broke and spread further. As long as it was small, she hid it out of shame and told no one; but when it got bad, she sent for Democedes and showed it to him.

He said he would cure her, but made her swear that she would repay him by granting whatever he asked of her, and said that he would ask nothing shameful.

And after he treated her and did cure her, Atossa addressed Darius in their chamber as she had been instructed by Democedes: “O King, although you have so much power you are idle, acquiring no additional people or power for the Persians.

The right thing for a man who is both young and the master of great wealth is to be seen aggrandizing himself, so that the Persians know too that they are ruled by a man. On two counts it is in your interest to do this, both so that the Persians know that their leader is a man, and so that they be occupied by war and not have time to plot against you.

You should show some industry now, while you are still young: for sense grows with the growing body, but grows old too with the aging body and loses its edge for all purposes.”

She said this as instructed, but he replied with this: “Woman, what you have said is exactly what I had in mind to do. For I have planned to make a bridge from this continent to the other continent and lead an army against the Scythians; and this will be done in a short time.”

“Look,” Atossa said, “let the Scythians go for the present; you shall have them whenever you like; I tell you, march against Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas . I have heard of Laconian and Argive and Attic and Corinthian women, and would like to have them as servants. You have a man who is fitter than any other to instruct and guide you in everything concerning Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas : I mean the physician who healed your foot.”

Darius answered, “Woman, since you think that we should make an attempt on Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece first, it seems to me to be best that we first send Persian spies with the man whom you mention, who shall tell us everything that they learn and observe; and then when I am fully informed I shall rouse myself against them.”

He said this, and no sooner said than did it. For the next day at dawn he summoned fifteen prominent Persians, and instructed them to go with Democedes and sail along the coast of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas ; telling them, too, by all means to bring the physician back and not let him escape.

Having given these instructions to them, he then sent for Democedes, and asked of him that when he had shown and made clear all of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece to the Persians, he would come back; and he told him to take all his movable goods to give to his father and siblings, saying that he would give him many times as much in return and would send with him a ship with a cargo of all good things.

Darius, I think, made this promise without a treacherous intent, but Democedes was afraid that Darius was testing him; therefore he was in no hurry to accept all that was offered, but answered that he would leave his own possessions where they were, so as to have them when he returned; the ship which Darius promised him to carry the gifts for his siblings, he said he would accept. Having given the same instructions to Democedes too, Darius sent them all to the coast.

They came down to the city of +Sidon [35.366,33.55] (inhabited place), Al-Janub, Lebanon, Asia Sidon in +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia , and there chartered two triremes, as well as a great galley laden with all good things; and when everything was ready they set sail for Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , where they surveyed and mapped the coasts to which they came; until having viewed the greater and most famous parts they reached +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe Tarentum in Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe Italy .

There Aristophilides, king of the Tarentines, out of sympathy for Democedes, took the steering gear off the Median ships and put the Persians under a guard, calling them spies. While they were in this plight, Democedes made his way to +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton ; and Aristophilides did not set the Persians free and give them back what he had taken from their ships until the physician was in his own country.

The Persians sailed from +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe Tarentum and pursued Democedes to +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton , where they found him in the marketplace and tried to seize him.

Some Crotoniats, who feared the Persian power, would have given him up; but others resisted and beat the Persians with their sticks. “Men of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton , watch what you do,” said the Persians; “you are harboring an escaped slave of the King's.

How do you think King Darius will like this insolence? What good will it do you if he gets away from us? What city will we attack first here? Which will we try to enslave first?”

But the men of +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton paid no attention to them; so the Persians lost Democedes and the galley with which they had come, and sailed back for Asia (continent) Asia , making no attempt to visit and learn of the further parts of Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas now that their guide was taken from them.

But Democedes gave them a message as they were setting sail; they should tell Darius, he said, that Democedes was engaged to the daughter of Milon. For Darius held the name of Milon the wrestler in great honor; and, to my thinking, Democedes sought this match and paid a great sum for it to show Darius that he was a man of influence in his own country as well as in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia .

The Persians then put out from +Croton [17.1333,39.0833] (Perseus) Croton ; but their ships were wrecked on the coast of Iapygia, and they were made slaves in the country until Gillus, an exile from +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe Tarentum , released and restored them to Darius, who was ready to give him whatever he wanted in return.

Gillus chose to be restored to +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe Tarentum and told the story of his misfortune; but, so as not to be the occasion of agitating Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Greece , if on his account a great expedition sailed against Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe Italy , he said that it was enough that the Cnidians alone be his escort; for he supposed that the Tarentines would be the readier to receive him back as the Cnidians were their friends.

Darius kept his word, and sent a messenger to the men of +Cnidus Nova [27.366,36.666] (deserted settlement), Mugla Ili, Ege kiyilari, Turkey, Asia Cnidos , telling them to take Gillus back to +Taranto [17.216,40.466] (inhabited place), Taranto, Apulia, Italy, Europe Tarentum . They obeyed Darius; but they could not persuade the Tarentines, and were not able to apply force.

This is what happened, and these Persians were the first who came from Asia (continent) Asia into Greece [22,39] (nation), Europe Hellas , and they came to view the country for this reason.

After this, King Darius conquered +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , the greatest of all city states, Greek or barbarian, the reason for his conquest being this: when Cambyses, son of Cyrus, invaded Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt , many Greeks came with the army, some to trade, as was natural, and some to see the country itself; among them was Syloson, son of Aeaces, who was Polycrates' brother and in exile from +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos .

This Syloson had a stroke of good luck. He was in the market at Mit Rahina [31.25,29.85] (inhabited place), Giza, Upper Egypt, Egypt, Africa Memphis wearing a red cloak, when Darius, at that time one of Cambyses' guard and as yet a man of no great importance, saw him, and coveting the cloak came and tried to buy it.

When Syloson saw Darius' eagerness, by good luck he said, “I will not sell this for any money, but I give it to you free if you must have it so much.” Extolling this, Darius accepted the garment.

Syloson supposed that he had lost his cloak out of foolish good nature. But in time Cambyses died, the seven rebelled against the Magus, and Darius of the seven came to the throne; Syloson then learned that the successor to the royal power was the man to whom he had given the garment in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt ; so he went up to Shush [48.333,32.2] (inhabited place), Khuzestan, Iran, Asia Susa and sat in the king's antechamber, saying that he was one of Darius' benefactors.

When the doorkeeper brought word of this to the king, Darius asked “But to what Greek benefactor can I owe thanks? In the little time since I have been king hardly one of that nation has come to us, and I have, I may say, no use for any Greek. Nevertheless bring him in, so that I may know what he means.”

The doorkeeper brought Syloson in and the interpreters asked him as he stood there who he was and what he had done to call himself the king's benefactor. Then Syloson told the story of the cloak, and said that it was he who had given it.

“Most generous man,” said Darius, “it was you who gave me a present when I had as yet no power; and if it was a small one, I was none the less grateful then than I am now when I get a big one. In return, I give you gold and silver in abundance so you may never be sorry that you did Darius son of Hystaspes good.”

Syloson answered, “Do not give me gold, O king, or silver, but +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , my country, which our slave has now that my brother Polycrates has been killed by Oroetes; give me this without killing or enslaving.”

Having heard this, Darius sent an army and Otanes, one of the seven, to command it, instructing him to do whatever Syloson asked. So Otanes went down to the coast and got his army ready.

Now +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos was ruled by Maeandrius, son of Maeandrius, who had authority delegated by Polycrates. He wanted to be the justest of men, but that was impossible.

For when he learned of Polycrates' death, first he set up an altar to Zeus the Liberator and marked out around it that sacred enclosure which is still to be seen in the suburb of the city; when this had been done, he called an assembly of all the citizens, and addressed them thus:

“To me, as you know, have come Polycrates' scepter and all of his power, and it is in my power now to rule you. But I, so far as it lies in me, shall not do myself what I blame in my neighbor. I always disliked it that Polycrates or any other man should lord it over men like himself. Polycrates has fulfilled his destiny, and inviting you to share his power I proclaim equality.

Only I claim for my own privilege that six talents of Polycrates' wealth be set apart for my use, and that I and my descendants keep the priesthood of Zeus the Liberator, whose temple I have founded, and now I give you freedom.”

Such was Maeandrius' promise to the Samians. But one of them arose and answered: “But you are not even fit to rule us, low-born and vermin, but you had better give an account of the monies that you have handled.”

This was the speech of Telesarchus, a man of consequence among the citizens. But Maeandrius, realizing that if he let go of the sovereignty someone else would make himself sovereign instead, resolved not to let it go. Withdrawing into the acropolis, he sent for the citizens individually as if he would give an account of the money; then he seized and bound them.

So they were imprisoned, and afterwards Maeandrius fell sick. His brother Lycaretus thought him likely to die, and, so that he might the more easily make himself master of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , he put all the prisoners to death. They had, it would seem, no desire to be free.

So when the Persians brought Syloson back to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , no one raised a hand against them, but Maeandrius and those of his faction offered to evacuate the island under a flag of truce; Otanes agreed to this, and after the treaty was made, the Persians of highest rank sat down on seats facing the acropolis.

Now Maeandrius the sovereign had a crazy brother named Charilaus, who lay bound in the dungeon for some offense; this man heard what was going on, and by peering through the dungeon window saw the Persians sitting there peaceably;

whereupon he cried with a loud voice that he wanted to talk to Maeandrius. His brother, hearing him, had Charilaus loosed and brought before him. No sooner had he been brought than he attempted with reviling and abuse to persuade Maeandrius to attack the Persians. “Although I am your brother, you coward,” he said, “and did no wrong deserving of prison, you have bound and imprisoned me; but when you see the Persians throwing you out of house and home, you have no courage to avenge yourself, though you could so easily beat them?

If you are yourself afraid of them, give me your foreign guards, and I will punish them for coming here; as for you, I will give you safe conduct out of the island.”

This was what Charilaus said; and Maeandrius took his advice, to my thinking not because he was so foolish as to suppose that he would be strong enough to defeat the king, but because he did not want Syloson to recover +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos safe and sound with no trouble.

He wanted therefore by provoking the Persians to weaken +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos as much as he could before surrendering it, for he was well aware that if the Persians were hurt they would be furiously angry with the Samians. Besides, he knew that he could get himself safely off the island whenever he liked, having built a secret passage leading from the acropolis to the sea.

Maeandrius then set sail from +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos ; but Charilaus armed all the guards, opened the acropolis' gates, and attacked the Persians. These supposed that a full agreement had been made, and were taken unawares; the guard fell upon them and killed the Persians of highest rank, those who were carried in litters.

They were engaged in this when the rest of the Persian force came up in reinforcement, and, hard-pressed, the guards retreated into the acropolis.

The Persian captain Otanes, seeing how big a loss the Persians had suffered, deliberately forgot the command given him at his departure by Darius not to kill or enslave any Samian but to deliver the island intact to Syloson; and he commanded his army to kill everyone they took, men and boys alike.

Then, while some of the Persians laid siege to the acropolis, the rest killed everyone they met, inside the temples and outside the temples alike.

Maeandrius sailed to Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon , escaping from +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos ; and after he arrived there and brought up the possessions with which he had left his country, it became his habit to make a display of silver and gold drinking cups; while his servants were cleaning these, he would converse with the king of Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta , Cleomenes son of Anaxandrides, and would bring him to his house. As Cleomenes marvelled greatly at the cups whenever he saw them, Maeandrius would tell him to take as many as he liked.

Maeandrius made this offer two or three times; Cleomenes showed his great integrity in that he would not accept; but realizing that there were others in Sparta [22.416,37.83] (inhabited place), Laconia, Peloponnese, Greece, Europe Lacedaemon from whom Maeandrius would get help by offering them the cups, he went to the ephors and told them it would be best for Sparta [22.4417,37.0667] (Perseus) Sparta if this Samian stranger quit the country, lest he persuade Cleomenes himself or some other Spartan to do evil. The ephors listened to his advice and banished Maeandrius by proclamation.

As for +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , the Persians swept it clear and turned it over uninhabited to Syloson. But afterwards Otanes, the Persian general, helped to settle the land, prompted by a dream and a disease that he contracted in his genitals.

While the fleet was away at +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos , the Babylonians revolted. They had made very good preparation; for during the reign of the Magus, and the rebellion of the seven, they had taken advantage of the time and the confusion to provision themselves against the siege; and (I cannot tell how) this went undetected.

At last they revolted openly and did this:—sending away all the mothers, each chose one woman, whomever he liked of his domestics, as a bread-maker; as for the rest, they gathered them together and strangled them so they would not consume their bread.

When Darius heard of this, he collected all his forces and led them against Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , and he marched up to the town and laid siege to it; but the Babylonians thought nothing of the siege. They came up on to the ramparts of the wall and taunted Darius and his army with gesture and word, and one of them uttered this mot:

“Why loiter there, Persians, and not go away? You will take us when mules give birth.” One of the Babylonians said this, by no means expecting that a mule would give birth.

A year and seven months passed, and Darius and his whole army were bitter because they could not take Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon . Yet Darius had used every trick and every device against it. He tried the stratagem by which Cyrus took it, and every other stratagem and device, yet with no success; for the Babylonians kept a vigilant watch, and he could not take them.

But in the twentieth month of the siege a marvellous thing befell Zopyrus, son of that Megabyzus who was one of the seven destroyers of the Magus: one of his food-carrying mules gave birth. Zopyrus would not believe the news; but when he saw the foal for himself, he told those who had seen it to tell no one;

then reflecting he recalled the Babylonian's word at the beginning of the siege—that the city would be taken when mules gave birth—and having this utterance in mind he conceived that Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon might be taken; for the hand of heaven, he supposed, was in the man's word and the birth from his own mule.

As soon as he thought that it was Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon 's fate to fall, he came and inquired of Darius if taking Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon were very important to him; and when he was assured that it was, he then cast about for a plan by which the city's fall would be accomplished by him alone; for good service among the Persians is very much esteemed, and rewarded by high preferment.

He could think of no other way to bring the city down than to mutilate himself and then desert to the Babylonians; so, making light of it, he mutilated himself beyond repair, and after cutting off his nose and ears and cropping his hair as a disfigurement and scourging himself, he came before Darius.

The king reacted very violently to seeing a man so well-respected mutilated, and springing from the throne he uttered a cry and asked Zopyrus who it was who had mutilated him and why.

“There is no man,” he said, “except you, who has enough power to do this to me, and no one but I myself did this, O King, because I felt it terribly that Assyrians were laughing at Persians.”

Darius answered, “Unfeeling man, you give a pretty name to an ugly act if you say that it was on account of those besieged that you did for yourself past cure. Why, you poor fool, will the enemy surrender sooner because you mutilated yourself? How could you not have been out of your mind to disfigure yourself?”

“Had I told you,” said Zopyrus, “what I intended to do, you would not have let me; but now I have done it on my own. Now, then, if you do your part we shall take Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon . I shall desert to the city as I am, and I shall say to them that I suffered this at your hands; and I think that I shall persuade them, and thus gain a command.

Now, on the tenth day after I enter the city, take a thousand men from the part of your army about which you will least care if it is lost, and post them before the gate called the gate of Semiramis; on the seventh day after that, post two thousand more before the gate called the gate of the Ninevites; and when twenty days are past after that seventh, lead out four thousand more and post them before the Chaldean gate, as they call it; allow neither these, nor the others that go before them, to carry any weapons except daggers; leave them these.

But immediately after the twentieth day command the rest of your army to assault the whole circuit of the walls, and post the Persians before the gate of Belus and the gate called Cissian. For I think that once I have done conspicuous things the Babylonians will give me, among other things, the keys of their gates; then it will depend on me and on the Persians to do what is necessary.”

Having given these instructions, he went to the gates, turning and looking back as though he were in fact a deserter. When the watch posted on the towers saw him, they ran down, and opening half the gate a little asked him who he was and why he came; he told them that he was Zopyrus and was deserting to them.

When they heard this, the gatekeepers brought him before the general assembly of the Babylonians, where he made a pitiful sight, saying that he had suffered at the hands of Darius what he had suffered at his own because he had advised the king to lead his army away, since they could find no way to take the city.

“Now,” he said in his speech to them, “I come as a great boon to you, men of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , and as a great bane to Darius and to his army and to the Persians; for he shall not get away with having mutilated me so; and I know all the issues of his plans.” This was what he said.

When the Babylonians saw the most well-respected man in Iran [53,32] (nation), Asia Persia without his nose and ears and all lurid with blood from the scourging, they were quite convinced that he was telling them the truth and came as their ally, and were ready to give him all that he asked; and he asked for a command.

When he got this from them, he did exactly as he had arranged with Darius. On the tenth day he led out the Babylonian army, surrounded and slaughtered the thousand whom he had instructed Darius to put in the field first.

Seeing that he produced works equal to his words, the Babylonians were overjoyed and ready to serve him in every way. When the agreed number of days was past, he led out once more a chosen body of Babylonians, and slaughtered the two thousand men of Darius' army.

When the Babylonians saw this work too, the praise of Zopyrus was on everyone's lips. The agreed number of days once again passing, he led out his men to the place he had named, where he surrounded the four thousand and slaughtered them. And when he had done this, Zopyrus was the one man for Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon : he was made the commander of their armies and guard of the walls.

So when Darius assaulted the whole circuit of the walls, according to the agreed plan, then Zopyrus' treason was fully revealed. For while the townsmen were on the wall defending it against Darius' assault, he opened the gates called Cissian and Belian, and let the Persians inside the walls.

Those Babylonians who saw what he did fled to the temple of that Zeus whom they call Belus; those who had not seen it remained in position, until they too discovered how they had been betrayed.

Thus Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon was taken a second time, and when Darius was master of the Babylonians, he destroyed their walls and tore away all their gates, neither of which Cyrus had done at the first taking of Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon ; moreover he impaled about three thousand men that were prominent among them; as for the rest, he gave them back their city to live in.

Further, as the Babylonians, fearing for their food, had strangled their own women, as I described above, Darius provided wives to give them a posterity by appointing that each of the neighboring nations should send a certain number of women to Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon ; the sum of the women thus collected was fifty thousand: these were the mothers of those who now inhabit the city.

There never was in Darius' judgment any Persian before or after who did better service than Zopyrus, except Cyrus, with whom no Persian could compare himself. Many times Darius is said to have declared that he would rather Zopyrus were free of disfigurement than have twenty Babylons on top of the one he had.

He honored him very much; every year he sent him such gifts as the Persians hold most precious, and let him govern Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon all his life with no tribute to pay, giving him many other things besides. This Zopyrus was the father of Megabyzus, who was general of an army in Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt against the Athenians and their allies; and Megabyzus' son was that Zopyrus who deserted from the Persians to Athens [23.7333,37.9667] (Perseus) Athens .

After taking Babylon [44.4,32.55] (deserted settlement), Babil, Iraq, Asia Babylon , Darius himself marched against the Scythians. For since Asia (continent) Asia was bursting with men and vast revenues were coming in, Darius desired to punish the Scythians for the wrong they had begun when they invaded Media first and defeated those who opposed them in battle.

For the Scythians, as I have said before, ruled upper Asia (continent) Asia for twenty-eight years; they invaded Asia (continent) Asia in their pursuit of the Cimmerians, and ended the power of the Medes, who were the rulers of Asia (continent) Asia before the Scythians came.

But when the Scythians had been away from their homes for twenty-eight years and returned to their country after so long an absence, as much trouble as their Median war awaited them. They found themselves opposed by a great force; for the Scythian women, when their husbands were away for so long, turned to their slaves.

Now the Scythians blind all their slaves, because of the milk they drink; and this is how they get it: taking tubes of bone very much like flutes, they insert these into the genitalia of the mares and blow into them, some blowing while others milk. According to them, their reason for doing this is that blowing makes the mare's veins swell and her udder drop.

When done milking, they pour the milk into deep wooden buckets, and make their slaves stand around the buckets and shake the milk; they draw off what stands on the surface and value this most; what lies at the bottom is less valued. This is why the Scythians blind all prisoners whom they take: for they do not cultivate the soil, but are nomads.

So it came about that a younger generation grew up, born of these slaves and the women; and when the youths learned of their parentage, they came out to fight the Scythians returning from Media.

First they barred the way to their country by digging a wide trench from the Tauric mountains to the broadest part of the Maeetian lake; and then, when the Scythians tried to force a passage, they camped opposite them and engaged them in battle.

There were many fights, and the Scythians could gain no advantage; at last one of them said, “Men of Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia , look at what we are doing! We are fighting our own slaves; they kill us, and we grow fewer; we kill them, and shall have fewer slaves.

Now, then, my opinion is that we should drop our spears and bows, and meet them with horsewhips in our hands. As long as they see us armed, they imagine that they are our equals and the sons of our equals; let them see us with whips and no weapons, and they will perceive that they are our slaves; and taking this to heart they will not face our attack.”

The Scythians heard this and acted on it; and their enemies, stunned by what they saw, did not think of fighting, but fled. Thus, the Scythians ruled Asia (continent) Asia and were driven out again by the Medes, and returned to their own country in such a way. Desiring to punish them for what they had done, Darius assembled an army against them.

The Scythians say that their nation is the youngest in the world, and that it came into being in this way. A man whose name was Targitaüs appeared in this country, which was then desolate. They say that his parents were Zeus and a daughter of the Borysthenes river (I do not believe the story, but it is told).

Such was Targitaüs' lineage; and he had three sons: Lipoxaïs, Arpoxaïs, and Colaxaïs, youngest of the three.

In the time of their rule (the story goes) certain implements—namely, a plough, a yoke, a sword, and a flask, all of gold—fell down from the sky into Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia . The eldest of them, seeing these, approached them meaning to take them; but the gold began to burn as he neared, and he stopped.

Then the second approached, and the gold did as before. When these two had been driven back by the burning gold, the youngest brother approached and the burning stopped, and he took the gold to his own house. In view of this, the elder brothers agreed to give all the royal power to the youngest.

Lipoxaïs, it is said, was the father of the Scythian clan called Auchatae; Arpoxaïs, the second brother, of those called Katiari and Traspians; the youngest, who was king, of those called Paralatae.

All these together bear the name of Skoloti, after their king; “Scythians” is the name given them by Greeks. This, then, is the Scythians' account of their origin,

and they say that neither more nor less than a thousand years in all passed from the time of their first king Targitaüs to the entry of Darius into their country. The kings guard this sacred gold very closely, and every year offer solemn sacrifices of propitiation to it.

Whoever falls asleep at this festival in the open air, having the sacred gold with him, is said by the Scythians not to live out the year; for which reason (they say) as much land as he can ride round in one day is given to him. Because of the great size of the country, the lordships that Colaxaïs established for his sons were three, one of which, where they keep the gold, was the greatest.

Above and north of the neighbors of their country no one (they say) can see or travel further, because of showers of feathers; for earth and sky are full of feathers, and these hinder sight.

This is what the Scythians say about themselves and the country north of them. But the story told by the Greeks who live in +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus is as follows. Heracles, driving the cattle of Geryones, came to this land, which was then desolate, but is now inhabited by the Scythians.

Geryones lived west of the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus , settled in the island called by the Greeks Erythea, on the shore of Ocean near Gadira, outside the pillars of Heracles. As for Ocean, the Greeks say that it flows around the whole world from where the sun rises, but they cannot prove that this is so.

Heracles came from there to the country now called Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia , where, encountering wintry and frosty weather, he drew his lion's skin over him and fell asleep, and while he slept his mares, which were grazing yoked to the chariot, were spirited away by divine fortune.

When Heracles awoke, he searched for them, visiting every part of the country, until at last he came to the land called the Woodland, and there he found in a cave a creature of double form that was half maiden and half serpent; above the buttocks she was a woman, below them a snake.

When he saw her he was astonished, and asked her if she had seen his mares straying; she said that she had them, and would not return them to him before he had intercourse with her; Heracles did, in hope of this reward.

But though he was anxious to take the horses and go, she delayed returning them, so that she might have Heracles with her for as long as possible; at last she gave them back, telling him, “These mares came, and I kept them safe here for you, and you have paid me for keeping them, for I have three sons by you.

Now tell me what I am to do when they are grown up: shall I keep them here (since I am queen of this country), or shall I send them away to you?” Thus she inquired, and then (it is said) Heracles answered:

“When you see the boys are grown up, do as follows and you will do rightly: whichever of them you see bending this bow and wearing this belt so, make him an inhabitant of this land; but whoever falls short of these accomplishments that I require, send him away out of the country. Do so and you shall yourself have comfort, and my will shall be done.”

So he drew one of his bows (for until then Heracles always carried two), and showed her the belt, and gave her the bow and the belt, that had a golden vessel on the end of its clasp; and, having given them, he departed. But when the sons born to her were grown men, she gave them names, calling one of them Agathyrsus and the next Gelonus and the youngest Scythes; furthermore, remembering the instructions, she did as she was told.

Two of her sons, Agathyrsus and Gelonus, were cast out by their mother and left the country, unable to fulfill the requirements set; but Scythes, the youngest, fulfilled them and so stayed in the land.

From Scythes son of Heracles comes the whole line of the kings of Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia ; and it is because of the vessel that the Scythians carry vessels on their belts to this day. This alone his mother did for Scythes. This is what the Greek dwellers in +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus say.

There is yet another story, to which account I myself especially incline. It is to this effect. The nomadic Scythians inhabiting Asia (continent) Asia , when hard pressed in war by the Massagetae, fled across the Araxes river to the Cimmerian country (for the country which the Scythians now inhabit is said to have belonged to the Cimmerians before),

and the Cimmerians, at the advance of the Scythians, deliberated as men threatened by a great force should. Opinions were divided; both were strongly held, but that of the princes was the more honorable; for the people believed that their part was to withdraw and that there was no need to risk their lives for the dust of the earth; but the princes were for fighting to defend their country against the attackers.

Neither side could persuade the other, neither the people the princes nor the princes the people; the one party planned to depart without fighting and leave the country to their enemies, but the princes were determined to lie dead in their own country and not to flee with the people, for they considered how happy their situation had been and what ills were likely to come upon them if they fled from their native land.

Having made up their minds, the princes separated into two equal bands and fought with each other until they were all killed by each other's hands; then the Cimmerian people buried them by the Tyras river, where their tombs are still to be seen, and having buried them left the land; and the Scythians came and took possession of the country left empty.

And to this day there are Cimmerian walls in Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia , and a Cimmerian ferry, and there is a country Cimmeria and a strait named Cimmerian.

Furthermore, it is evident that the Cimmerians in their flight from the Scythians into Asia (continent) Asia also made a colony on the peninsula where the Greek city of +Sinope [35.15,42.0167] (Perseus) Sinope has since been founded; and it is clear that the Scythians pursued them and invaded Media, missing their way;

for the Cimmerians always fled along the coast, and the Scythians pursued with the +Bol'soj Kavkaz [46.833,42] (mountain range), Asia Caucasus on their right until they came into the Median land, turning inland on their way. That is the other story current among Greeks and foreigners alike.

There is also a story related in a poem by Aristeas son of Caüstrobius, a man of +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Proconnesus . This Aristeas, possessed by Phoebus, visited the Issedones; beyond these (he said) live the one-eyed Arimaspians, beyond whom are the griffins that guard gold, and beyond these again the Hyperboreans, whose territory reaches to the sea.

Except for the Hyperboreans, all these nations (and first the Arimaspians) are always at war with their neighbors; the Issedones were pushed from their lands by the Arimaspians, and the Scythians by the Issedones, and the Cimmerians, living by the southern sea, were hard pressed by the Scythians and left their country. Thus Aristeas' story does not agree with the Scythian account about this country.

Where Aristeas who wrote this came from, I have already said; I will tell the story that I heard about him at +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Proconnesus and +Cyzicus [27.9,40.4167] (Perseus) Cyzicus . It is said that this Aristeas, who was as well-born as any of his townsfolk, went into a fuller's shop at +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Proconnesus and there died; the owner shut his shop and went away to tell the dead man's relatives,

and the report of Aristeas' death being spread about in the city was disputed by a man of +Cyzicus [27.9,40.4167] (Perseus) Cyzicus , who had come from the town of Artace, and said that he had met Aristeas going toward +Cyzicus [27.9,40.4167] (Perseus) Cyzicus and spoken with him. While he argued vehemently, the relatives of the dead man came to the fuller's shop with all that was necessary for burial;

but when the place was opened, there was no Aristeas there, dead or alive. But in the seventh year after that, Aristeas appeared at +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Proconnesus and made that poem which the Greeks now call the Arimaspea, after which he vanished once again.

Such is the tale told in these two towns. But this, I know, happened to the Metapontines in Italy [12.833,42.833] (nation), Europe Italy , two hundred and forty years after the second disappearance of Aristeas, as reckoning made at +Marmara Adasi [27.616,40.633] (island), Balikesir, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Proconnesus and +Metapontum [16.8333,40.3833] (Perseus) Metapontum shows me:

Aristeas, so the Metapontines say, appeared in their country and told them to set up an altar to Apollo, and set beside it a statue bearing the name of Aristeas the Proconnesian; for, he said, Apollo had come to their country alone of all Italian lands, and he—the man who was now Aristeas, but then when he followed the god had been a crow—had come with him.

After saying this, he vanished. The Metapontines, so they say, sent to Delphi [22.5167,38.4917] (Perseus) Delphi and asked the god what the vision of the man could mean; and the Pythian priestess told them to obey the vision, saying that their fortune would be better.

They did as instructed. And now there stands beside the image of Apollo a statue bearing the name of Aristeas; a grove of bay-trees surrounds it; the image is set in the marketplace. Let it suffice that I have said this much about Aristeas.

As for the land of which my history has begun to speak, no one exactly knows what lies north of it; for I can find out from no one who claims to know as an eyewitness. For even Aristeas, whom I recently mentioned—even he did not claim to have gone beyond the Issedones, even though a poet; but he spoke by hearsay of what lay north, saying that the Issedones had told him.

But all that we have been able to learn for certain by report of the farthest lands shall be told.

North of the port of the Borysthenites, which lies midway along the coast of Scythia (region (general)), Asia Scythia , the first inhabitants are the Callippidae, who are Scythian Greeks; and beyond them another tribe called Alazones; these and the Callippidae, though in other ways they live like the Scythians, plant and eat grain, onions, garlic, lentils, and millet.

Above the Alazones live Scythian farmers, who plant grain not to eat but to sell; north of these, the Neuri; north of the Neuri, the land is uninhabited so far as we know.

These are the tribes by the Hypanis river, west of the +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes . But on the other side of the +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes , the tribe nearest to the sea is the tribe of the Woodlands; and north of these live Scythian farmers, whom the Greek colonists on the Hypanis river (who call themselves Olbiopolitae) call Borystheneïtae.

These farming Scythians inhabit a land stretching east a three days' journey to a river called Panticapes, and north as far as an eleven days' voyage up the +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes ; and north of these the land is desolate for a long way;

after the desolation is the country of the Man-eaters, who are a nation apart and by no means Scythian; and beyond them is true desolation, where no nation of men lives, as far as we know.

But to the east of these farming Scythians, across the Panticapes river, you are in the land of nomadic Scythians, who plant nothing, nor plough; and all these lands except the Woodlands are bare of trees. These nomads inhabit a country to the east that stretches fourteen days' journey to the Gerrus river.

Across the Gerrus are those lands called Royal, where the best and most numerous of the Scythians are, who consider all other Scythians their slaves; their territory stretches south to the Tauric land, and east to the trench that was dug by the sons of the blind men, and to the port called The Cliffs on the Maeetian lake; and part of it stretches to the +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs river.

North of the Royal Scythians live the Blackcloaks, who are of another and not a Scythian stock; and beyond the Blackcloaks the land is all marshes and uninhabited by men, so far as we know.

Across the +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs it is no longer Scythia (region (general)), AsiaScythia; the first of the districts belongs to the Sauromatae, whose country begins at the inner end of the Maeetian lake and stretches fifteen days' journey north, and is quite bare of both wild and cultivated trees. Above these in the second district, the Budini inhabit a country thickly overgrown with trees of all kinds.

North of the Budini the land is uninhabited for seven days' journey; after this desolation, and somewhat more toward the east wind, live the Thyssagetae, a numerous and a separate nation, who live by hunting.

Adjoining these and in the same country live the people called Iyrkae; these also live by hunting, in the way that I will describe. The hunter climbs a tree, and sits there concealed; for trees grow thickly all over the land; and each man has his horse at hand, trained to flatten on its belly for the sake of lowness, and his dog; and when he sees the quarry from the tree, he shoots with the bow and mounts his horse and pursues it, and the dog follows close behind.

Beyond these and somewhat to the east live Scythians again, who revolted from the Royal Scythians and came to this country.

As for the countryside of these Scythians, all the land mentioned up to this point is level and its soil deep; but thereafter it is stony and rough.

After a long journey through this rough country, there are men inhabiting the foothills of high mountains, who are said to be bald from birth (male and female alike) and snub-nosed and with long beards; they speak their own language, and wear Scythian clothing, and their food comes from trees.

The tree by which they live is called “Pontic”; it is about the size of a fig-tree, and bears a fruit as big as a bean, with a stone in it. When this fruit is ripe, they strain it through cloth, and a thick black liquid comes from it, which they call “aschu”; they lick this up or drink it mixed with milk, and from the thickest lees of it they make cakes, and eat them.

They have few cattle, for the pasture in their land is not good. They each live under a tree, covering it in winter with a white felt cloth, but using no felt in summer.

These people are wronged by no man, for they are said to be sacred; nor have they any weapon of war. They judge the quarrels between their neighbors; furthermore, whatever banished man has taken refuge with them is wronged by no one. They are called Argippeans.

Now as far as the land of these bald men, we have full knowledge of the country and the nations on the near side of them; for some of the Scythians make their way to them, from whom it is easy to get knowledge, and from some of the Greeks, too, from the +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes port and the other ports of +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus; such Scythians as visit them transact their business with seven interpreters and in seven languages.

As far as these men this country is known, then, but what lies north of the bald men no one can say with exact knowledge; for high and impassable mountains bar the way, and no one crosses them. These bald men say (although I do not believe them) that the mountains are inhabited by men with goats' feet, and that beyond these are men who sleep for six months of the twelve. This I cannot accept as true at all.

But the country east of the bald-heads is known for certain to be inhabited by the Issedones; however, of what lies north either of the bald-heads or the Issedones we have no knowledge, except what comes from the report of these latter.

It is said to be the custom of the Issedones that, whenever a man's father dies, all the nearest of kin bring beasts of the flock and, having killed these and cut up the flesh, they also cut up the dead father of their host, and set out all the flesh mixed together for a feast.

As for his head, they strip it bare and clean and gild it, and keep it for a sacred relic, to which they offer solemn sacrifice yearly. Every son does this for his father, just like the Greeks in their festivals in honor of the dead. In other respects, these are said to be a law-abiding people, too, and the women to have equal power with the men.

Of these too, then, we have knowledge; but as for what is north of them, it is from the Issedones that the tale comes of the one-eyed men and the griffins that guard gold; this is told by the Scythians, who have heard it from them; and we have taken it as true from the Scythians, and call these people by the Scythian name, Arimaspians; for in the Scythian tongue “arima” is one, and “spou” is the eye.

All the aforesaid country is exceedingly cold: for eight months of every year there is unbearable frost, and during these you do not make mud by pouring out water but by lighting a fire; the sea freezes, as does all the Kerchenskiy Proliv [36.650,45.250] (strait), EuropeCimmerian Bosporus; and the Scythians living on this side of the trench lead armies over the ice, and drive their wagons across to the land of the +Sindi [24.666,58.4] (inhabited place), lost & found/Estonia, Estonia, EuropeSindi.

So it is winter for eight months, and cold in that country for the four that remain. Here, there is a different sort of winter than the winters in other lands: for in the season for rain scarcely any falls, but all summer it rains unceasingly;

and when there are thunderstorms in other lands, here there are none, but in summer there are plenty of them; if there is a thunderstorm in winter they are apt to wonder at it as at a portent. And so, too, if there is an earthquake summer or winter, it is considered a portent in Scythia (region (general)), AsiaScythia.

Horses have the endurance to bear the Scythian winter; mules and asses cannot bear it at all; and yet in other lands, while asses and mules can endure frost, horses that stand in it are frostbitten.

“Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya, the land where lambs are born with horns on their foreheads,”

In Scythia (region (general)), AsiaScythia, then, this happens because of the cold. But I think it strange (for it was always the way of my history to investigate excurses) that in the whole of +Elis [21.4,37.8833] (Perseus) Elis no mules can be conceived although the country is not cold, nor is there any evident cause. The Eleans themselves say that it is because of a curse that mules cannot be conceived among them;

but whenever the season is at hand for the mares to conceive, they drive them into the countries of their neighbors, and then send the asses after them, until the mares are pregnant, and then they drive them home again.

But regarding the feathers of which the Scythians say that the air is full, so thickly that no one can see or traverse the land beyond, I have this opinion. North of that country snow falls continually, though less in summer than in winter, as is to be expected.

Whoever has seen snow falling thickly near him knows himself my meaning; for snow is like feathers; and because of the winter, which is as I have said, the regions to the north of this continent are uninhabited. I think therefore that in this story of feathers the Scythians and their neighbors only speak of snow figuratively. So, then, I have spoken of those parts that are said to be most distant.

Concerning the Hyperborean people, neither the Scythians nor any other inhabitants of these lands tell us anything, except perhaps the Issedones. And, I think, even they say nothing; for if they did, then the Scythians, too, would have told, just as they tell of the one-eyed men. But Hesiod speaks of Hyperboreans, and Homer too in his poem The Heroes' Sons, if that is truly the work of Homer.

But the Delians say much more about them than any others do. They say that offerings wrapped in straw are brought from the Hyperboreans to Scythia (region (general)), AsiaScythia; when these have passed Scythia (region (general)), AsiaScythia, each nation in turn receives them from its neighbors until they are carried to the +Adriatic Sea [16,43] (sea), Europe Adriatic sea, which is the most westerly limit of their journey;

from there, they are brought on to the south, the people of Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus)Dodona being the first Greeks to receive them. From Dodona [20.8,39.55] (Perseus)Dodona they come down to the Melian gulf, and are carried across to +Euboea [23.833,38.566] (island), Nomos Evvoias, Central Greece and Euboea, Greece, Europe Euboea, and one city sends them on to another until they come to Carystus; after this, +Andros [24.9,37.816] (inhabited place), Nisos Andros, Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Andros is left out of their journey, for Carystians carry them to +Nisos Tinos [25.166,37.583] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Tenos, and Tenians to Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos.

Thus (they say) these offerings come to Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos. But on the first journey, the Hyperboreans sent two maidens bearing the offerings, to whom the Delians give the names Hyperoche and Laodice, and five men of their people with them as escort for safe conduct, those who are now called Perpherees and greatly honored at Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos.

But when those whom they sent never returned, they took it amiss that they should be condemned always to be sending people and not getting them back, and so they carry the offerings, wrapped in straw, to their borders, and tell their neighbors to send them on from their own country to the next;

and the offerings, it is said, come by this conveyance to Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos. I can say of my own knowledge that there is a custom like these offerings; namely, that when the Thracian and Paeonian women sacrifice to the Royal Artemis, they have straw with them while they sacrifice.

I know that they do this. The Delian girls and boys cut their hair in honor of these Hyperborean maidens, who died at Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos; the girls before their marriage cut off a tress and lay it on the tomb, wound around a spindle

(this tomb is at the foot of an olive-tree, on the left hand of the entrance of the temple of Artemis); the Delian boys twine some of their hair around a green stalk, and lay it on the tomb likewise.

In this way, then, these maidens are honored by the inhabitants of Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos. These same Delians relate that two virgins, Arge and Opis, came from the Hyperboreans by way of the aforesaid peoples to Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos earlier than Hyperoche and Laodice;

these latter came to bring to Eileithyia the tribute which they had agreed to pay for easing child-bearing; but Arge and Opis, they say, came with the gods themselves, and received honors of their own from the Delians.

For the women collected gifts for them, calling upon their names in the hymn made for them by +Olen (lake), Orebro, Sweden, Europe Olen of +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lycia; it was from Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos that the islanders and Ionians learned to sing hymns to Opis and Arge, calling upon their names and collecting gifts (this +Olen (lake), Orebro, Sweden, Europe Olen, after coming from +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lycia, also made the other and ancient hymns that are sung at Delos [25.2833,37.4] (Perseus)Delos).

Furthermore, they say that when the thighbones are burnt in sacrifice on the altar, the ashes are all cast on the burial-place of Opis and Arge, behind the temple of Artemis, looking east, nearest the refectory of the people of +Kea [24.366,37.566] (island), Cyclades, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Ceos.

I have said this much of the Hyperboreans, and let it suffice; for I do not tell the story of that Abaris, alleged to be a Hyperborean, who carried the arrow over the whole world, fasting all the while. But if there are men beyond the north wind, then there are others beyond the south.

And I laugh to see how many have before now drawn maps of the world, not one of them reasonably; for they draw the world as round as if fashioned by compasses, encircled by the Ocean river, and Asia (continent)Asia and Europe (continent)Europe of a like extent. For myself, I will in a few words indicate the extent of the two, and how each should be drawn.

The land where the Persians live extends to the southern sea which is called Red; beyond these to the north are the Medes, and beyond the Medes the Saspires, and beyond the Saspires the Colchians, whose country extends to the northern sea into which the Phasis river flows; so these four nations live between the one sea and the other.

But west of this region two peninsulas stretch out from it into the sea, which I will now describe.

On the north side one of the peninsulas begins at the +Poti [41.683,42.183] (inhabited place), regions under republican jurisdiction, Georgia, Asia Phasis and stretches seaward along the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus and the Canakkale Bogazi (strait), Canakkale, Marmara, Turkey, Asia Hellespont, as far as Sigeum in the +Troas (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Troad; on the south side, the same peninsula has a seacoast beginning at the Myriandric gulf that is near +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia, and stretching seaward as far as the Triopian headland. On this peninsula live thirty nations.

This is the first peninsula. But the second, beginning with Iran [53,32] (nation), AsiaPersia, stretches to the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea, and is Persian land; and next, the neighboring land of Assyria; and after Assyria, Arabian Peninsula [45,25] (region (general)), AsiaArabia; this peninsula ends (not truly but only by common consent) at the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), AsiaArabian Gulf, to which Darius brought a canal from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), AfricaNile.

Now from the Persian country to +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia there is a wide and vast tract of land; and from +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia this peninsula runs beside our sea by way of the Syrian Palestine and Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt, which is at the end of it; in this peninsula there are just three nations.

So much for the parts of Asia (continent)Asia west of the Persians. But what is beyond the Persians, and Medes, and Saspires, and Colchians, east and toward the rising sun, this is bounded on the one hand by the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea, and to the north by the +Caspian Sea [51,39] (sea) Caspian Sea and the Araxes river, which flows toward the sun's rising.

As far as +India [77,20] (nation), Asia India, Asia (continent)Asia is an inhabited land; but thereafter, all to the east is desolation, nor can anyone say what kind of land is there.

Such is Asia (continent)Asia, and such its extent. But Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya is on this second peninsula; for Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya comes next after Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt. The Egyptian part of this peninsula is narrow; for from our sea to the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea it is a distance of a hundred and twenty-five miles; that is, a thousand stades; but after this narrow part, the peninsula which is called Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya is very broad.

I wonder, then, at those who have mapped out and divided the world into Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya, Asia (continent)Asia, and Europe (continent)Europe; for the difference between them is great, seeing that in length Europe (continent)Europe stretches along both the others together, and it appears to me to be wider beyond all comparison.

For Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya shows clearly that it is bounded by the sea, except where it borders on Asia (continent)Asia. Necos king of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt first discovered this and made it known. When he had finished digging the canal which leads from the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), AfricaNile to the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), AsiaArabian Gulf, he sent Phoenicians in ships, instructing them to sail on their return voyage past the Pillars of Heracles until they came into the northern sea and so to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt.

So the Phoenicians set out from the +Red Sea [42,15] (sea) Red Sea and sailed the southern sea; whenever autumn came they would put in and plant the land in whatever part of Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya they had reached, and there await the harvest;

then, having gathered the crop, they sailed on, so that after two years had passed, it was in the third that they rounded the pillars of Heracles and came to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt. There they said (what some may believe, though I do not) that in sailing around Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya they had the sun on their right hand.

Thus was the first knowledge of Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya gained. The next story is that of the Carthaginians: for as for Sataspes son of Teaspes, an Achaemenid, he did not sail around Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya, although he was sent for that purpose; but he feared the length and loneliness of the voyage and so returned without accomplishing the task laid upon him by his mother.

For he had raped the virgin daughter of Zopyrus son of Megabyzus; and when on this charge he was to be impaled by King Xerxes, Sataspes' mother, who was Darius' sister, interceded for his life, saying that she would impose a heavier punishment on him than Xerxes;

for he would be compelled to sail around Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya, until he completed his voyage and came to the Persian Gulf [53.83,25.583] (gulf), AsiaArabian Gulf. Xerxes agreed to this, and Sataspes went to Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt where he received a ship and a crew from the Egyptians, and sailed past the Pillars of Heracles.

Having sailed out beyond them, and rounded the Libyan promontory called Solois, he sailed south; but when he had been many months sailing over the sea, and always more before him, he turned back and made sail for Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt.

Coming to King Xerxes from there, he related in his narrative that, when he was farthest distant, he sailed by a country of little men, who wore palm-leaf clothing; these, whenever he and his men put in to land with their ship, left their towns and fled to the hills; he and his men did no harm when they landed, and took nothing from the people except cattle.

As to his not sailing completely around Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya, the reason (he said) was that the ship could move no farther, but was stopped. But Xerxes did not believe that Sataspes spoke the truth, and, as the task appointed was unfulfilled, he impaled him, punishing him on the charge first brought against him.

This Sataspes had a eunuch, who as soon as he heard of his master's death escaped to +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos, with a great hoard of wealth, of which a man of +Nisos Samos [26.8,37.75] (island), Samos, Aegean Islands, Greece, Europe Samos got possession. I know the man's name but deliberately omit it.

But as to Asia (continent)Asia, most of it was discovered by Darius. There is a river, +Indus [67.75,24.416] (river), Asia Indus, second of all rivers in the production of crocodiles. Darius, desiring to know where this +Indus [67.75,24.416] (river), Asia Indus empties into the sea, sent ships manned by Scylax, a man of Caryanda, and others whose word he trusted;

these set out from the city of Caspatyrus and the Pactyic country, and sailed down the river toward the east and the sunrise until they came to the sea; and voyaging over the sea west, they came in the thirtieth month to that place from which the Egyptian king sent the above-mentioned Phoenicians to sail around Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya.

After this circumnavigation, Darius subjugated the Indians and made use of this sea. Thus it was discovered that Asia (continent)Asia, except the parts toward the rising sun, was in other respects like Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya.

But it is plain that none have obtained knowledge of Europe (continent)Europe's eastern or northern regions, so as to be able say if it is bounded by seas; its length is known to be enough to stretch along both Asia (continent)Asia and Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya.

I cannot guess for what reason the earth, which is one, has three names, all women's, and why the boundary lines set for it are the Egyptian Nile river and the Colchian Phasis river (though some say that the Maeetian Tanaïs river and the Cimmerian Ferries are boundaries); and I cannot learn the names of those who divided the world, or where they got the names which they used.

For Libya [17,25] (nation), AfricaLibya is said by most Greeks to be named after a native woman of that name, and Asia (continent)Asia after the wife of Prometheus; yet the Lydians claim a share in the latter name, saying that Asia (continent)Asia was not named after Prometheus' wife Asia (continent)Asia, but after Asies, the son of Cotys, who was the son of Manes, and that from him the Asiad clan at Sardis [28.0167,38.475] (Perseus) Sardis also takes its name.

But as for Europe (continent)Europe, no men have any knowledge whether it is bounded by seas or not, or where it got its name, nor is it clear who gave the name, unless we say that the land took its name from the Tyrian Europa, having been (it would seem) before then nameless like the rest.

But it is plain that this woman was of Asiatic birth, and never came to this land which the Greeks now call Europe (continent)Europe, but only from +Phoenicia (region (general)), Asia Phoenicia to +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete and from +Crete [25,35.166] (region), Greece, Europe Crete to +Lycia (region (general)), Turkey, Asia Lycia. Thus much I have said of these matters, and let it suffice; we will use the names established by custom.

Nowhere are men so ignorant as in the lands by the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Euxine +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus (excluding the Scythian nation) into which Darius led his army. For we cannot show that any nation within the region of the +Black Sea [38,42] (sea) Pontus has any cleverness, nor do we know of (overlooking the Scythian nation and Anacharsis) any notable man born there.

But the Scythian race has made the cleverest discovery that we know in what is the most important of all human affairs; I do not praise the Scythians in all respects, but in this, the most important: that they have contrived that no one who attacks them can escape, and no one can catch them if they do not want to be found.

For when men have no established cities or forts, but are all nomads and mounted archers, not living by tilling the soil but by raising cattle and carrying their dwellings on wagons, how can they not be invincible and unapproachable?

They have made this discovery in a land that suits their purpose and has rivers that are their allies; for their country is flat and grassy and well-watered, and rivers run through it not very many fewer in number than the canals of Egypt [30,27] (nation), Africa Egypt.

As many of them as are famous and can be entered from the sea, I shall name. There is the Ister, which has five mouths, and the +Dnestr (river), Europe Tyras, and Hypanis, and +Dnepr (river), Europe Borysthenes, and Panticapes, and Hypacuris, and Gerrhus, and +Azov [39.433,47.1] (inhabited place), Rostov, Rossiya, Russia, Asia Tanaïs. Their courses are as I shall indicate.

The Ister, the greatest of all rivers which we know, flows with the same volume in summer and winter; it is most westerly Scythian river of all, and the greatest because other rivers are its tributaries.

Those that make it great, five flowing through the Scythian country, are these: the river called by Scythians Porata and by Greeks Pyretus, and besides this the Tiarantus, the Ararus, the Naparis, and the Ordessus.

The first-named of these rivers is a great stream flowing east and uniting its waters with the Ister; the second, the Tiarantus, is more westerly and smaller; the Ararus, Naparis, and Ordessus flow between these two and pour their waters into the Ister.

These are the native-born Scythian rivers that help to swell it; but the Maris river, which commingles with the Ister, flows from the Agathyrsi. The Atlas, Auras, and Tibisis, three other great rivers that pour into it, flow north from the heights of +Stara Planina (mountain range), Europe Haemus. The Athrys, the Noes, and the Artanes flow into the Ister from the country of the Crobyzi in Thrace (region (general)), EuropeThrace; the Cius river, which cuts through the middle of +Stara Planina (mountain range), Europe Haemus, from the Paeonians and the mountain range of +Nomos Rodhopis [25.5,41.83] (department), Western Thrace, Greece, Europe Rhodope.

The Angrus river flows north from +Illyria (region (general)), Europe Illyria into the Triballic plain and the Brongus river, and the Brongus into the Ister, which receives these two great rivers into itself. The Carpis and another river called Alpis also flow northward, from the country north of the Ombrici, to flow into it;

for the Ister traverses the whole of Europe (continent)Europe, rising among the Celts, who are the most westerly dwellers in Europe (continent)Europe, except for the Cynetes, and flowing thus clean across Europe (continent)Europe it issues forth along the borders of Scythia (region (general)), AsiaScythia.

With these rivers aforesaid, and many others, too, as its tributaries, the Ister becomes the greatest river of all, while river for river the Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), AfricaNile surpasses it in volume, since that owes its volume of water to no tributary river or spring.

But the Ister is always the same height in summer and winter, the reason for which, I think, is this. In winter it is of its customary size, or only a little greater than is natural to it, for in that country in winter there is very little rain, but snow everywhere.

In the summer, the abundant snow that has fallen in winter melts and pours from all sides into the Ister; so this snow-melt pours into the river and helps to swell it and much violent rain besides, as the summer is the season of rain.

And in proportion as the sun draws to itself more water in summer than in winter, the water that commingles with the Ister is many times more abundant in summer than it is in winter; these opposites keep the balance true, so that the volume of the river appears always the same.

One of the rivers of the Scythians, then, is the Ister. The next is the +Dnestr (river), Europe Tyras; this comes from the north, flowing at first out of a great lake, which is the boundary between the Scythian and the Neurian countries; at the mouth of the river there is a settlement of Greeks, who are called Tyritae.

The third river is the Hypanis; this comes from Scythia (region (general)), AsiaScythia, flowing out of a great lake, around which wild, white horses graze. This lake is truly called the mother of the Hypanis.

Here, then, the Hypanis rises; for five days' journey its waters are shallow and still sweet; after that for four days' journey seaward it is amazingly bitter,

for a spring runs into it so bitter that although its volume is small its admixture taints the Hypanis, one of the few great rivers of the world. This spring is on the border between the farming Scythians and the Alazones; the name of it and of the place where it rises is in Scythian Exampaeus; in the Greek tongue, Sacred Ways.

The +Dnestr (river), Europe Tyras and the Hypanis draw near together in the Alazones' country; after that they flow apart, the intervening space growing wider.

The fourth is the Borysthenes river. This is the next greatest after the Ister, and the most productive, in our judgment, not only of the Scythian but of all rivers, except the Egyptian Nahr an- Nil [31.1,30.166] (river), AfricaNile, with which no other river can be compared.