Happy Latin: Caesar’s Battles快乐拉丁语：凯撒的战役Hour 28 · CAPSTONE: Caesar after Gaul, Rubicon to Ides第 28 课 · 总结：高卢以后的凯撒，从卢比孔到三月望日

Hour 28 — CAPSTONE: Caesar after Gaul, Rubicon to Ides第 28 课 —— 总结：高卢以后的凯撒，从卢比孔到三月望日

Course capstone.课程总结。 Hour 28 closes the 28-hour Caesar arc with the period after the Gallic War: the civil war (49–45 BC), the quadruple triumph (46 BC) with Vercingetorix's ritual strangulation, Caesar's appointment as第 28 课以高卢战争以后的时期收束这 28 课的凯撒弧线：内战（公元前 49–45 年）、四重凯旋式（公元前 46 年）连同维钦托利的仪式性绞杀、凯撒被任命为 dictātor perpetuus, and his assassination on the Ides of March, 44 BC. Latin drawn from Suetonius (，以及他在公元前 44 年三月望日（Ides）遭到刺杀。拉丁文取自苏维托尼乌斯（Divus Iulius), Plutarch (）、普鲁塔克（Caesar), and Caesar himself (），以及凯撒本人（BG 1.1 quoted at the closing). Pairs with Wheelock Ch. 27 (Special and Irregular Comparison — adjectives without a positive degree). Grammar from Wheelock 6th edn. revised (LaFleur 2005), Ch. 27.1.1，引于结尾处）。本课配合 Wheelock 第 27 章（特殊与不规则比较 —— 没有原级的形容词）。语法取自 Wheelock 第 6 版修订本（LaFleur 2005）第 27 章。

Briefing

From Gaul to the Ides — the closing arc从高卢到三月望日 —— 收束的弧线

Hour 27 ended with Caesar setting out for Italy in the autumn of 51 BC, the Gallic War complete, Vercingetorix already six years a prisoner in Rome. Hour 28 — the第 27 课结束于公元前 51 年秋凯撒动身前往意大利，高卢战争已经结束，维钦托利已在罗马做了六年囚徒。第 28 课 —— capstone of the course本课程的总结 — follows what came next: the—— 接着讲述随后发生的事： civil war (49–45 BC), the quadruple triumph (46 BC), Vercingetorix's ritual strangulation, Caesar's appointment as、维钦托利的仪式性绞杀、凯撒被任命为 dictātor perpetuus, and his assassination on the Ides of March, 44 BC. The narrative source is no longer Caesar or even Hirtius — it is the later biographical and historiographical tradition:。叙事来源不再是凯撒、甚至也不是希尔提乌斯 —— 而是更晚的传记与史学传统： Suetonius's Divus Iulius (~AD 120),（约公元 120 年）， Plutarch's Life of Caesar (~AD 100), and（约公元 100 年），以及 Cassius Dio's Roman History (early 3rd c.). The Latin we read in this hour is therefore not first-hand Caesarian commentary but later（公元 3 世纪初）。因此本课读到的拉丁文并非凯撒第一手的纪事，而是更晚的 imperial帝国时期 Latin shaped by knowledge of where the story ends.拉丁文，已经被“因此事如何收场”这一认知所塑造。

The arc is tight and famous. In January 49 BC Caesar crosses the这段弧线紧凑而著名。公元前 49 年 1 月，凯撒渡过 Rubicon, the small river marking the boundary between his province (Cisalpine Gaul) and Italy proper. Caesar is reported to have said，这条小河标示着他的行省（山南高卢）与意大利本土的间的界线。据说凯撒在渡河时说了 iacta ālea est "the die is cast" as he crossed. Four years of civil war follow against Pompey and the senatorial faction — fought from Italy through Greece (Pharsalus, 48 BC), Egypt (where Cleopatra), Asia Minor (the famous“骰子已经掷下”。随后是四年内战，对抗庞培与元老院一派 —— 战火从意大利延烧到希腊（法萨卢斯，公元前 48 年）、埃及（克娄巴特拉在此）、小亚细亚（著名的 vēnī, vīdī, vīcī of 47 BC), North Africa (Thapsus, 46 BC), and finally Spain (Munda, 45 BC). In August 46 BC Caesar returns to Rome and celebrates a，公元前 47 年）、北非（塔普苏斯，公元前 46 年），最后到西班牙（蒙达，公元前 45 年）。公元前 46 年 8 月，凯撒回到罗马，举行了一场 quadruple triumph over four consecutive days: Gallic, Egyptian, Pontic, and African.，连续四天：高卢、埃及、本都、非洲。 Vercingetorix is paraded in the Gallic triumph维钦托利在高卢凯旋式中被游街示众 and then strangled in the Mamertine prison below the Capitol — six years after his surrender at Alesia.随后在卡皮托利山下的玛默尔定监狱中被绞死 —— 距他在阿莱西亚投降已过去六年。

Caesar is appointed凯撒被任命为 dictātor perpetuus in February 44 BC. Within weeks he is dead: on the时在公元前 44 年 2 月。几周的内他便死去：在 Ides of March (March 15) 44 BC公元前 44 年三月望日（3 月 15 日）, a conspiracy of perhaps sixty senators led by，一场或许由六十名元老组成的密谋，为首的是 Brutus and Cassius stab him to death in the Curia of Pompey at the foot of the statue of his civil-war enemy. According to Suetonius, Caesar dies silently, covering his head with his toga; according to Plutarch and the later Greek tradition, he addresses Brutus in Greek:在庞培议事堂里、于他内战仇敌的雕像脚下将他刺死。据苏维托尼乌斯所记，凯撒一言不发地死去，用托加袍蒙住头；据普鲁塔克与后来的希腊传统，他用希腊语对布鲁图斯说： καὶ σὺ τέκνον? "you too, my son?" — Shakespeare's“你也有份吗，我的孩子？”—— 莎士比亚笔下的 Et tū, Brūte? is a Latinized echo.正是它的拉丁化回声。

Hour 28: Caesar's Last Years — composed from Suetonius / Plutarch / Caesar (BG 1.1)第 28 课：凯撒的最后岁月 —— 取自苏维托尼乌斯／普鲁塔克／凯撒（BG 1.1）

After Uxellodunum Caesar set out into further Italy: a civil war, greater than the Gallic, was awaiting him. For Pompey, more eminent in the senate and consul, had gathered forces against him. In the month of January, 49 BC, Caesar crossed the river Rubicon: provoked by this extreme cause, he said: "the die is cast!" Through four years he conquered with civil arms: in nearer (Cisalpine) Italy, in Greece at Pharsalus, in inner Spain at Munda, and in nearer Egypt: the final civil war was the worst. "I came, I saw, I conquered" — thus he himself had most quickly overcome Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, in Pontus: with three very brief words he described the greatest victory. In the year 46 BC Caesar was led back to Rome: he led the greatest quadruple triumph — Gallic, Egyptian, Pontic, African — over four consecutive days. In the first triumph, which was the Gallic, Vercingetorix was led, bound in chains: after six years brought forth from prison, in the Mamertine [prison] he was ritually strangled — vanquished, the last enemy of the victor. Afterwards Caesar was made dictator-for-life: he held the highest power in the Republic, but his last hour was approaching. With one hundred sixty senators having conspired, with Brutus and Cassius as the first, the Ides of March of 44 BC were fatal. In the Curia of Pompey, having caught sight of Caesar sitting on the higher seat, the conspirators drew their swords: at the feet of the statue of Pompey, Caesar fell dead, his head veiled with his toga. Suetonius, seventy years later, wrote this: that those last words "And you, Brutus?" were a later fiction: in fact Caesar is reported to have said in Greek καὶ σύ, τέκνον? — "and you, my son?" Caesar in the lower world of shades has now been made closer to Vercingetorix than an innermost friend: victor and vanquished are united in the same world. "All Gaul is divided into three parts." Thus begins The Gallic War, written in 58 BC. Caesar, killed in 44 BC, still endures in the language: the greatest part of our own name, the greatest part of our culture, is owed to him forever.

Connection to Wheelock与 Wheelock 教材的衔接

This hour pairs with本课配合 Wheelock Chapter 27 — Special and Irregular Comparison of AdjectivesWheelock 第 27 章 —— 形容词的特殊与不规则比较. A small but important class of Latin adjectives have根本没有 —— 它们只以比较级和最高级的形式存在，带有表方位的含义： no positive degree at all — they exist only as comparatives and superlatives, with locational meanings:根本没有 —— 它们只以比较级和最高级存在，带有方位含义：

They function as ordinary comparatives/superlatives but their positives are either obsolete (它们的功能与普通的比较级／最高级一样，但其原级要么已经废弃（īnferus, exterus, posterus, ulter, citer are sometimes attested in old Latin) or never existed. The在古拉丁文中偶有出现），要么从未存在过。其 locational meaning is primary — they all describe—— 它们都描述 relative position in physical or sequential space在物理空间或序列空间中的相对位置.

Today's Capstone Task今日总结任务

Identify all verbs (finite + participles + infinitives + gerunds) AND identify all找出所有动词（限定形式 + 分词 + 不定式 + 动名词），并找出所有 comparative and superlative forms比较级与最高级形式, with special attention to the，尤其留意 Ch. 27 family without positives第 27 章中没有原级的那一族. The passage contains。本段含有 26 chapter-focus targets26 个本章重点目标, mostly Ch. 27 family — completing the morphological tour of Year 1.，多为第 27 章一族 —— 至此完成第一年的形态学巡礼。

Grammar Target — Special & Irregular Comparison语法目标 —— 特殊与不规则比较

Adjectives without a positive — the locational family没有原级的形容词 —— 表方位的一族

A small but important class of Latin adjectives have no positive degree. They exist only as comparatives and superlatives, and all carry meanings of。它们只以比较级和最高级的形式存在，全部带有 spatial position or relative location空间位置或相对方位.

(See briefing table above.)（见上方简报表。）

What they mean — semantic ranges它们的含义 —— 语义范围

These adjectives are spatial first, but extended into temporal, sequential, and value-of-place uses:这些形容词首先表空间，但延伸到时间、序列以及“位置价值”等用法：

• prior / prīmus: temporal "earlier / first" → ordinal "first in a series."：时间义“较早／第一”→ 序数义“一系列中的第一个”。
• superior / summus: physical "higher / highest" → social "more eminent / supreme" → temporal "earlier" (：物理义“较高／最高”→ 社会义“更显赫／至高”→ 时间义“较早”（superior diē "on the previous day").“在前一天”）。
• īnferior / īnfimus: physical "lower" → social "humbler / lowest."：物理义“较低”→ 社会义“较卑微／最低”。
• interior / intimus: physical "inner" → relational "innermost / closest (friend)."：物理义“较内”→ 关系义“最内层／最亲近（的朋友）”。
• exterior / extrēmus: physical "outer" → "the end of, last part of" (：物理义“较外”→“……的末端、……的最后部分”（extrēmum bellum "the end of the war").“战争的末尾”）。
• posterior / postrēmus: temporal "later / last."：时间义“较晚／最后”。
• ulterior / ultimus: spatial "further" → "the final, ultimate."：空间义“更远”→“最终的、终极的”。
• citerior / citimus: Caesar uses these much.：凯撒大量使用这两个词。 Gallia Citerior山南高卢（Gallia Citerior） "Nearer (Cisalpine) Gaul." Opposed to“较近的（山南）高卢。”与下词相对： Gallia Ulterior山外高卢（Gallia Ulterior）.
• propior / proximus: spatial "nearer / next" → temporal "next" (：空间义“较近／其次”→ 时间义“下一个”（proximō annō "in the next year").“在下一年”）。
• deterior / dēterrimus: qualitative "worse / worst" — distinct from：性质义“较坏／最坏”—— 不同于 peior/pessimus (more moral than functional).（更偏道德义，而非功能义）。

Declension — exactly like Ch. 26 forms变格 —— 与第 26 章的形式完全相同

Comparatives (比较级（prior, posterior...) decline as 3rd-decl. consonant-stem adjectives (like）按第三变格辅音干形容词变化（像第 26 章的 longior of Ch. 26). Superlatives (）。最高级（prīmus, ultimus, intimus...) decline as 1st/2nd-decl. adjectives (like）按第一／第二变格形容词变化（像 bonus). No new endings — only new lexemes.没有新词尾 —— 只有新词。

Quick reference — the six Ch. 26 irregulars速查 —— 第 26 章的六个不规则形容词

A note on关于 plūs — the strangest comparative的一点说明 —— 最奇特的比较级

Plūs in the singular is a在单数时是一个 neuter noun中性名词, not an adjective: it takes a partitive genitive.，而非形容词：它带部分属格。 Plūs auxiliī "more help" (literally "more OF help"). In the plural“更多帮助”（字面是“更多的帮助”）。在复数 plūrēs, plūra it returns to normal adjective behavior.它恢复为正常的形容词用法。 Plūrēs hostēs "more enemies."“更多敌人”。

Three warning signs三个警示点

1. No positive form means you can't back-translate easily.没有原级，意味着你不能轻易反向直译。 For "the lower part" / "the upper part", Latin uses表示“较低的部分”／“较高的部分”时，拉丁文用 īnferior / superior — no positives. You can't say *—— 没有原级。在标准古典拉丁文里你不能说 *īnferus in standard Classical Latin (it's a rare archaism).（这是一个罕见的古语）。
2. Superlatives in this family often have TWO forms with different meanings.这一族的最高级往往有两个形式，含义不同。 Summus = "topmost, supreme";=“顶端的、至高的”； suprēmus = "last, final" (temporal/end-of-life nuance). Similarly=“最后的、最终的”（带时间／生命终结的意味）。同样地， īnfimus "lowest" vs“最低的”对 īmus "bottommost";“最底部的”； ulterius "further" (adv.) vs“更远”（副词）对 ultimus "final."
3. The locational meaning is primary.方位含义为首要。 When in doubt, ask: where IS this thing in physical or sequential space?拿不准时就问：这个东西在物理空间或序列空间中位于哪里？ Prior means "in front of" before it means "earlier";在表“较早”以前先表“在前面”； posterior means "behind" before it means "later."在表“较晚”以前先表“在后面”。

Vocabulary

(121 entries — see HTML for full badge-tagged table.（121 条 —— 完整的带标签表格见 HTML。 Continuing badge:延续的标签： COMP (amber) now marks both regular and special/locational comparison forms across Ch. 26 + Ch. 27.)

Tagging rules in effect this Hour本课生效的标注规则

Carried from previous hours (ten cumulative codebook rules).沿用前几课的规则（累计十条编码规则）。 Capstone focus this hour:本课的总结重点： the Battle Task's secondary toggle isolates战斗任务的第二个开关单独标出 all comparison forms, with Ch. 27 family especially prominent.，其中第 27 章一族尤为突出。

Battle Task — Identify all verbs, and all comparison forms战斗任务 —— 找出所有动词，以及所有比较形式

Hour 28 Passage on Caesar's Last Years第 28 课关于凯撒最后岁月的段落

(Comparison targets in（比较级目标用 bold粗体, other verb targets in，其他动词目标用 italics斜体. Brackets [...] mark ablative-absolute boundaries.)。方括号 [...] 标出夺格独立结构的边界。）

1. Post Uxellodūnum Caesar in Italiam ulteriōrem [profectus] est: bellum cīvīle, māius quam Gallicum, eum manēbat. Pompēius enim, superior in senātū cōnsulque, cōpiās contrā coēgerat.
2. Mēnse Iānuāriō annī XLIX a.Chr.n., Caesar flūmen Rubicōnem trānsiit: [hāc ratiōne extrēmā prōvocātus], dīxit: "iacta ālea est!"
3. Per quattuor annōs cīvīlibus armīs vīcit: in citeriōre Italiā, in Graeciā ad Pharsalum, in interiōre Hispāniā ad Mundam, et in propiōre Aegyptō: ultimum bellum cīvīle erat dēterrimum.
4. "Vēnī, vīdī, vīcī" — sīc ipse Pharnacem, [Mithridātis fīlium], in Pontō celerrimē superāverat: tribus brevissimīs verbīs maximam victōriam dēscrīpsit.
5. Annō XLVI a.Chr.n. Caesar Rōmam reductus est: quadruplicem triumphum maximum dūxit — Gallicum, Aegyptium, Ponticum, Āfricānum — quattuor diēbus continuīs.
6. In prīmō triumphō, [quī Gallicus fuit], Vercingetorix [catēnīs vīnctus] dūcēbātur: post sex annōs ē carcere ēductus, in Mamertīnō rituāliter strangulātus est — victus, victōris hostis suprēmus.
7. Posteā Caesar dictātor perpetuus factus est: summum imperium in repūblicā tenuit, sed postrēmum tempus eī adveniēbat.
8. [Coniūrātīs centum sexāgintā senātōribus, [Brūtō et Cassiō prīmīs]], Īdūs Mārtiae annī XLIV a.Chr.n. fātālēs erant.
9. In Curiā Pompēī, [Caesarem in sellā superiōre sedentem cōnspicātī], cōnspīrātī gladiōs strīnxērunt: ad pedēs statuae Pompēī Caesar mortuus corruit, [togā velātō capite].
10. Suetōnius septuāgintā annīs posterior haec scrīpsit: ille ultima verba "Et tū, Brūte?" fictiō posterior erat: rē vērā Caesar Graecē fertur dīxisse καὶ σύ, τέκνον? — "et tū, fīlī?"
11. Caesar [in īnferiōre umbrārum mundō] Vercingetorigī nunc factus est propior quam intimus amīcus: victor et victus eōdem mundō ūnītī sunt.
12. "Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs." Sīc incipit De Bellō Gallicō [annō LVIII a.Chr.n. scrīptum]. Caesar [annō XLIV a.Chr.n. interfectus] iam in linguā perdūrat: plūrimum nōminis nostrī ipsīus, maxima pars cultūrae nostrae, eī perpetuō dēbētur.

Answer Key — Comparison Targets (26)答案 —— 比较类目标（26 处）

Distribution — the capstone synthesis:分布 —— 总结性的综合： - 19 Ch. 27 family forms19 个第 27 章一族的形式 (most of which have no positive in Classical Latin) -（其中多数在古典拉丁文里没有原级） 5 Ch. 26 irregular forms5 个第 26 章不规则形式 (māius, maximam, maximum, plūrimum, maxima) - 2 special-stem superlatives2 个特殊词干最高级 (celerrimē, brevissimīs)

The beautiful distinction in s. 6-7第 6–7 句中那处优美的区分 between suprēmus "last, final" (temporal/finality) and“最后的、最终的”（时间／终结义）与 summum "highest, supreme" (spatial/rank): both are superlatives of“最高的、至高的”（空间／等级义）的间：两者都是下词的最高级 superior, but they specialize. Vercingetorix is the，但各有专门用法。维钦托利是那个 suprēmus enemy (final, the last one); Caesar's敌人（终极的、最后一个）；凯撒的 summum imperium is the highest (rank). Latin uses both forms but with different shades.则是最高的（等级义）。拉丁文两种形式都用，但含义有细微差别。

Questions on the Narrative关于叙述的问题

1. Sentence 1 —第 1 句 —— bellum cīvīle, māius quam Gallicum "a civil war greater than the Gallic." Translate. Why is the civil war "greater" — in scope, in cost, in moral weight, or all three?“一场比高卢战争更大的内战。”请翻译。为什么内战“更大”—— 是在规模上、代价上、道德分量上，还是兼而有的？
2. Sentence 4 —第 4 句 —— vēnī, vīdī, vīcī. Three first-person perfect verbs. Translate, with attention to the asyndeton (no connectives). Why does this work as a slogan?。三个第一人称完成时动词。请翻译，并留意其中的连词省略（asyndeton，无连接词）。为什么它能成为一句口号？
3. Sentence 7's distinction:第 7 句的区分： summum imperium (highest power) vs（最高权力）对 postrēmum tempus (last hour). Two superlatives of the Ch. 27 family in tension. How does Latin's locational vocabulary serve the dramatic irony?（最后一刻）。第 27 章一族的两个最高级形成张力。拉丁文表方位的词汇如何服务于这种戏剧性反讽？
4. Sentence 10 — Suetonius is第 10 句 —— 苏维托尼乌斯是 posterior (later); the words（较晚的）；那句话 Et tū, Brūte are posterior fictiō后来的虚构 (a later fiction). The same comparative adjective twice in different senses. How does Latin let this work?（一处后世的杜撰）。同一个比较级形容词两次出现，含义不同。拉丁文如何让这成为可能？
5. Sentence 11's claim: Caesar and Vercingetorix are第 11 句的论断：凯撒与维钦托利在冥界 ūnītī in the underworld, Caesar now，凯撒如今比 propior than intimus amīcus. What is this rhetorical move doing at the end of the course?。这一修辞手法在课程的结尾处意在何为？

Further Questions — Translation延伸问题 —— 翻译

Translate sentences 4, 11, and 12 into idiomatic English. Pay attention to: - The asyndetic tricolon in s. 4 (把第 4、11、12 句译成地道的英文。请注意： —— 第 4 句中省略连词的三连式（vēnī, vīdī, vīcī) and its rhetorical force. - The locational paradox in s. 11 (）及其修辞力量。 —— 第 11 句中表方位的悖论（īnferior mundus + propior + intimus). - The closing return to）。 —— 第 12 句回到 DBG 1.1 in s. 12 — how does the course bookend?1.1 的收尾 —— 课程如何首尾呼应？

Screening (course finale)放映（课程结尾）

Proposed clip:建议片段： Julius Caesar (1953, Joseph L. Mankiewicz, with Marlon Brando as Antony) for the canonical cinematic rendering of the conspiracy and Caesar's death; or HBO's（1953，约瑟夫·曼凯维奇导演，马龙·白兰度饰安东尼），作为对密谋与凯撒的死的经典银幕呈现；或 HBO 的 Rome (2005-07, season 1 finale) for a darker, more modern take. For the triumph: surviving Roman triumph imagery from Trajan's Column and the Arch of Titus (5-minute British Museum video on YouTube). For the "what comes next" pivot to Vergil and Year 2: the opening of the（2005–07 年，第一季终集），作为更阴郁、更现代的演绎。凯旋式部分：图拉真柱与提图斯凯旋门上留存的罗马凯旋图像（大英博物馆 YouTube 上的 5 分钟视频）。承接“接下来发生什么”而转向维吉尔与第二年课程：可读任何现代版本的 Aeneid in any modern reading.开篇。 Subject to instructor confirmation. Course finale — celebrate appropriately.有待教师确认。课程结尾 —— 适当庆祝一下。

Discussion — course reflection讨论 —— 课程回顾

1. The course began课程始于 (Hour 1) with the Helvetii crossing the Arar in March 58 BC, and ends (Hour 28) with Caesar dead at the foot of Pompey's statue in March 44 BC — fourteen years between the bookends. What kind of figure is Caesar in your reading after 28 hours? Brilliant general? Ruthless conqueror? Master prose stylist? Self-promoting politician? All of the above?（第 1 课），赫尔维提人于公元前 58 年 3 月渡过阿拉尔河，终于（第 28 课）凯撒于公元前 44 年 3 月倒在庞培雕像脚下 —— 两端的间相隔十四年。读完 28 课，凯撒在你眼中是怎样的人物？卓越的将领？冷酷的征服者？文风的大师？善于自我宣传的政客？还是以上皆是？

2. Vercingetorix appears in Hours 23-28维钦托利出现在第 23–28 课 with grudging respect from Caesar/Hirtius. Why does Caesar/Hirtius let Vercingetorix have this dignity? What does it cost Caesar rhetorically to do so?，凯撒／希尔提乌斯对他怀着勉强的敬意。凯撒／希尔提乌斯为什么让维钦托利保有这份尊严？这样做在修辞上又让凯撒付出了什么代价？

3. The closing sentence收尾的句子 (s. 12) quotes the famous opening of（第 12 句）引用了那句著名的开篇 De Bello Gallico: Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs. The course is now in dialogue with its first hour. How has reading the whole arc changed your reading of that opening line? Is the calm, geographic, classifying voice still calm after you know what comes next?。课程如今与它的第一课形成对话。读完整段弧线，是否改变了你对那句开篇的理解？在你知道后来发生的一切以后，那个冷静、地理化、分类式的声音是否还那么冷静？

4. Latin grammar, after 28 hours学了 28 课的拉丁语法以后: what was hardest? What clicked unexpectedly? Was it the ablative absolute? Indirect statement? The gerund/gerundive distinction? The 5th declension? Defend your choice with a specific passage where the construction does narrative or rhetorical work that English couldn't.：什么最难？什么出乎意料地一下子明白了？是夺格独立结构？间接陈述？动名词／动形词的区分？第五变格？请用一个具体段落来为你的选择辩护，在那里这一结构完成了英文做不到的叙事或修辞功能。

5. Course-end question课程结束的问: What will you do next with Latin? Year 2 of formal grammar (Wheelock Chs. 28-40 + reading selections)? A specific author (Cicero, Vergil, Tacitus, Ovid)? Late Latin (Augustine, Boethius, Bede)? Neo-Latin (Erasmus, Newton)? Liturgical Latin? Spoken Latin?：你接下来打算用拉丁文做什么？正式语法的第二年（Wheelock 第 28–40 章 + 阅读选段）？某位特定作者（西塞罗、维吉尔、塔西陀、奥维德）？晚期拉丁文（奥古斯丁、波爱修斯、比德）？新拉丁文（伊拉斯谟、牛顿）？礼仪拉丁文？口语拉丁文？ Reading Caesar was the beginning, not the end.读凯撒是开始，而非结束。

Course Complete课程完成

COURSE COMPLETE.课程完成。 You have finished你已经读完 Happy Latin: Caesar's Battles快乐拉丁语：凯撒的战役 — 28 hours, 14 of Caesar's years, 27 Wheelock chapters, ~1,200 vocabulary words, the full arc from Arar to Ides. The next step is Year 2.—— 28 课、凯撒的 14 年、27 章 Wheelock、约 1200 个词汇，从阿拉尔河到三月望日的完整弧线。下一步是第二年。 Avē atque valē.

What you have learned

Twenty-eight hours.二十八课。 You have read selections from你已经读了选自 De Bello Gallico Books 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 — the full arc of Caesar's campaign in Gaul. You have also read Tacitus on Britain and (in this final hour) Suetonius and Plutarch on Caesar's last years.第 1、2、3、4、5、6、7、8 卷的选段 —— 凯撒高卢战役的完整弧线。你还读了塔西陀论不列颠，以及（在这最后一课）苏维托尼乌斯与普鲁塔克论凯撒的最后岁月。

You have worked through你已经学完 27 chapters of Wheelock's Latin27 章 Wheelock 拉丁语, covering:，涵盖：

• Nouns名词: 1st through 5th declensions：第一到第五变格
• Adjectives: 1st/2nd-decl., 3rd-decl. (i-stem and consonant), comparison (regular, irregular, Ch. 27 special)：第一／第二变格、第三变格（i 干与辅音干）、比较（规则、不规则、第 27 章特殊）
• Pronouns代词: personal, demonstrative (：人称、指示（hic, ille, iste, is, īdem, ipse), relative (）、关系（quī), reflexive (）、反身、强调sē), intensive
• Verbs in all four conjugations + 3rd-iō + irregulars全部四种变位的动词 + 第三变位 -iō + 不规则动词 (sum, possum, ferō, eō, volō, mālō, nōlō, fīō)
• All six tenses, both voices全部六个时态、两种语态, indicative，直陈式
• Imperatives命令式, all four conjugations，全部四种变位
• All four participles全部四种分词 (pres. act., perf. pass., fut. act., gerundive)（现在主动、完成被动、将来主动、动形词）
• Gerunds and gerundives动名词与动形词 (full distinction)（完整区分）
• All six infinitives全部六个不定式 (three tenses × two voices)（三个时态 × 两种语态）
• Indirect statement (Acc. + Inf., tense relative to main verb)（宾格 + 不定式，时态相对于主句动词）
• Ablative absolute夺格独立结构 + 13 distinct uses of the ablative+ 夺格的 13 种不同用法
• Key syntactic constructions关键句法结构: purpose clauses, result clauses, indirect command/question (lightly introduced)：目的从句、结果从句、间接命令／疑问（略作介绍）

You have built up a working vocabulary of你已经建立起约 approximately 1,200 Latin words1200 个拉丁词的实用词汇量.

What's next?接下来呢？

• Year 2: Wheelock Chs. 28–40 — the subjunctive in all its uses, sequence of tenses, conditional sentences, fear clauses,：Wheelock 第 28–40 章 —— 虚拟式的各种用法、时态呼应、条件句、表担心的从句、 cum-clauses, deponents, semi-deponents, irregular comparison of adverbs.-从句、异相动词、半异相动词、副词的不规则比较。
• Primary-text reading原典阅读: Cicero's shorter speeches, Sallust, Catullus, selections from Vergil's：西塞罗较短的演说、撒路斯提乌斯、卡图卢斯、维吉尔的选段 Aeneid.
• Specialized paths专门路径: Tacitus and the historians; Ovid and the Augustan poets; medieval Latin (Augustine, Boethius, Bede); Neo-Latin (Erasmus, Newton, Linnaeus); spoken Latin (yes — there are：塔西陀与史家；奥维德与奥古斯都时期诗人；中世纪拉丁文（奥古斯丁、波爱修斯、比德）；新拉丁文（伊拉斯谟、牛顿、林奈）；口语拉丁文（是的 —— 真有 conventiculae).

You are now a reader of Latin.）。

Sources

• Latin text: composed from：取自 Suetonius, Divus Iulius §§32 (Rubicon), 37 (the four triumphs), 80–82 (the conspiracy and assassination);§§32（卢比孔）、37（四场凯旋式）、80–82（密谋与刺杀）； Plutarch, Life of Caesar §§32 (the Rubicon), 55–56 (the triumphs), 66 (the assassination);§§32（卢比孔）、55–56（凯旋式）、66（刺杀）； Caesar himself, Bellum Gallicum 1.1 (the famous opening, quoted in s. 12). Latin lightly stylized for pedagogical clarity.1.1（著名的开篇，引于第 12 句）。拉丁文为教学清晰起见略作平顺处理。
• English translation英文翻译: standard scholarly translations of the source texts, adapted (Loeb editions for Suetonius and Plutarch; McDevitte & Bohn 1869 for Caesar).：源文本的标准学术译文，有改编（苏维托尼乌斯与普鲁塔克用 Loeb 版；凯撒用 McDevitte 与 Bohn 1869 版）。
• Grammar: Wheelock 6th edn. revised (LaFleur 2005), Ch. 27.：Wheelock 第 6 版修订本（LaFleur 2005）第 27 章。
• Course design课程设计: 0 Caesar's Latin Course Structure and Task 1-2 .docx.
• Caesar's civil war and dictatorship — overview凯撒的内战与独裁 —— 综述: Z. Yavetz, Julius Caesar and His Public Image (1983); Erich S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974); M. Beard, SPQR: A History of Ancient Rome (2015), ch. 6 ("The Republic Dies, Then Resurrects").
• The Rubicon and "ālea iacta est"卢比孔与“骰子已掷下”: T. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995); A. M. Riggsby, Caesar in Gaul and Rome: War in Words (2006), with the rhetoric of decisive action.
• The quadruple triumph (46 BC)四重凯旋式（公元前 46 年）: M. Beard, The Roman Triumph (2007), the definitive modern treatment, with several chapters on Caesar's triumphs specifically.
• The assassination and the Ides of March刺杀与三月望日: B. Strauss, The Death of Caesar (2015); Z. Yavetz (cited); G. Woolf, Et tu, Brute? A Short History of Political Murder (2007), with the cultural afterlife.
• Vercingetorix's death and Roman triumph-protocol维钦托利的死与罗马凯旋仪轨: M. Reddé, Alésia: L'archéologie face à l'imaginaire (2003); P. M. Martin, Vercingétorix: le politique, le stratège (2000).
• The Caesarian legacy凯撒的遗产: Maria Wyke, Caesar in the USA (2012); Christopher Pelling, Plutarch and History (2002) on the biographical tradition; M. Beard (cited).
• Wheelock Ch. 27 — special comparison in pedagogical literatureWheelock 第 27 章 —— 教学文献中的特殊比较: A. C. Lyons, Latin Comparatives and Superlatives (Cambridge teaching notes, 2002); F. Sommer, Handbuch der lateinischen Laut- und Formenlehre, 2nd-3rd edn., §§ on relational adjective stems.
• The Caesarian linguistic legacy in modern languages凯撒的语言遗产在现代语言中: J. Adams, The Regional Diversification of Latin 200 BC – AD 600 (2007); R. Wright, Late Latin and Early Romance (1982).

Hour 28 marks the end of the course. Whatever Latin you read next will be informed by these 28 hours.第 28 课标志着课程的结束。你接下来读的任何拉丁文，都会因这 28 课而有所不同。 Avē atque valē — Caesar et tū.**